Ternatean–Portuguese conflicts

The Ternatean–Portuguese conflicts were a series of conflicts in the Spice Islands in eastern Indonesia between the Portuguese and their allies on one hand, and the Sultanate of Ternate and its allies, on the other. Hostilities broke out from time to time after the establishment of Portugal in Moluccas in 1522. The strongly Catholic and Muslim identities of the combatants gave the struggle elements of a war of religion, although this aspect was frequently blurred by cross-faith alliances. It was also an economic war since the Portuguese aim was to control export of the profitable trade in cloves. Portuguese-Ternatan rivalry later merged with attempts of expansion by the Spanish in the Philippines. The Portuguese were eventually defeated in 1605 by an alliance between the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Ternate, ending their active involvement in Moluccas affairs. However, they were soon replaced by the Spanish who maintained an Iberian presence in the region up to 1663. The Sultanate of Ternate was the most powerful realm in the Moluccas by the early 16th century and handled much of the lucrative spice trade. However, its position was always insecure, due to the presence of three other sultanates, Tidore, Jailolo and Bacan. When the Portuguese conquered the vital trading entrepot Malacca in 1511, this had consequences for the trade in cloves that had largely flowed via Malacca. The Malukan sultanates were therefore interested in befriending the Portuguese who appeared in Malukan waters from 1512. Sultan Bayan Sirrullah of Ternate invited the foreigners to his islands. A fort, São João Baptista, was constructed at the south coast of Ternate, near the sultan’s seat, around 1522. However, the manners of the Portuguese garrison and efforts to regulate the spice trade soon led to dissatisfaction. The political situation was further complicated by the neighbouring island Tidore that allied with the Spanish, who showed up in the Moluccas from time to time.