Society of the Song dynasty

Chinese society during the Song dynasty (960–1279) was marked by political and legal reforms, a philosophical revival of Confucianism, and the development of cities beyond administrative purposes into centres of industry and of maritime and river commerce. The rural population were mostly farmers, with some hunters, fishermen, and workers in the imperial mines and salt marshes. Conversely, shopkeepers, artisans, city guards, entertainers, laborers, and wealthy merchants lived in the county and provincial centres along with the Chinese gentry—a small, elite community of educated scholars and scholar-officials. As landholders and examination-drafted degree holders, the gentry considered themselves the leaders of society; gaining their cooperation and resources was essential for the county or provincial bureaucrat overburdened with official duties. In many ways, scholar-officials of the Song period differed from the more aristocratic officials of the Tang dynasty (618–907). Civil service examinations became the primary means of appointment to an official post as competitors for offices dramatically increased. Frequent disagreements amongst ministers of state on ideological and policy issues led to political strife and the proliferation of factions, giving entry for a multitude of families into the civil service. Confucian or Legalist scholars in ancient China—perhaps as far back as the late Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC)—categorized society into a hierarchy of four occupations (in descending order): shi (scholars, or gentry), nong (peasant farmers), gong (artisans and craftsmen), and Shang (merchants). Wealthy landowners and officials possessed the resources to prepare their sons for the rigorous civil service examinations, yet they were often rivalled in their power and wealth by merchants in the Song period. Merchants frequently colluded commercially and politically with officials, despite the low prestige of mercantile vocations. The military also provided a means for advancement for those who became officers, though soldiers also were not highly respected.