July 28

1364 – Troops of the Republic of Pisa and the Republic of Florence clash in the Battle of Cascina. 1540 – Henry VIII of England marries his fifth wife, Catherine Howard. 1571 – La Laguna encomienda, known today as the Laguna province in the Philippines, is founded by the Spaniards as one of the oldest encomiendas (provinces) in the country. 1635 – In the Eighty Years' War, the Spanish capture the strategic Dutch fortress of Schenkenschans. 1656 – Second Northern War: Battle of Warsaw begins. 1778 – Constitution of the province of Cantabria ratified at the Assembly Hall in Bárcena la Puente, Reocín, Spain. 1794 – French Revolution: Maximilien Robespierre and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just are executed by guillotine in Paris, France. 1808 – Mahmud II became Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and Caliph of Islam. 1809 – Peninsular War: Battle of Talavera: Sir Arthur Wellesley's British, Portuguese and Spanish army defeats a French force led by Joseph Bonaparte. 1821 – José de San Martín declares the independence of Peru from Spain. 1854 – , the last all-sail warship built by the United States Navy and now a museum ship in Baltimore Harbor, is commissioned. 1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Ezra Church: Confederate troops make a third unsuccessful attempt to drive Union forces from Atlanta, Georgia. 1866 – At the age of 18, Vinnie Ream becomes the first and youngest female artist to receive a commission from the United States government for a statue (of Abraham Lincoln). 1868 – The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution is certified, establishing African American citizenship and guaranteeing due process of law. 1883 – A moderate earthquake measuring magnitude 4.3–5.2 strikes the Italian island of Ischia, killing over 2,300 people. 1896 – The city of Miami is incorporated. 1911 – The Australasian Antarctic Expedition began as the SY Aurora departed London. 1914 – In the culmination of the July Crisis, Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, igniting World War I. 1915 – The United States begins a 19-year occupation of Haiti.