Kulturkampf

Kulturkampf (kʊlˈtuːɐ̯kampf, 'culture struggle') was a fierce conflict that took place from 1872 to 1878 between the Catholic Church led by Pope Pius IX and the government of Prussia led by Otto von Bismarck. The main issues were clerical control of education and ecclesiastical appointments. A unique feature of Kulturkampf, compared to other struggles between the state and the Catholic Church in other countries, was Prussia's anti-Polish component. By extension the term Kulturkampf is sometimes used to describe any conflict between secular and religious authorities, or deeply opposing values and beliefs between sizable factions within a nation, community, or other group. Under the influence of new emerging philosophies and ideologies, such as the enlightenment, realism, positivism, materialism, nationalism, secularism, and liberalism, the role of religion in society and the relationship between society and established churches underwent profound changes in the 18th and 19th centuries. Political leaders in many countries endeavored to strip the church of secular powers, whereas in earlier times the church and state were integrally connected; to reduce the duties of the church to spiritual affairs by secularising the public sphere and by separation of church and state; and to assert the supremacy of the state, especially in education. Róisín Healy argues that across Europe, the Kulturkampf operated mainly on the state level. It developed "especially in strongholds of liberalism, anti-clericalism, and anti-Catholicism". The Catholic Church resisted this development, which it portrayed as an attack on religion, and it sought to maintain and strengthen its strong role in the state and society. With the growing influence of enlightenment and after having lost much of its wealth, power, and influence in the course of the mediatization and secularization of the early 19th century, the church had been in a state of decline. The papacy was at a weak point in its history, having lost all its territories to Italy, with the pope a "prisoner" in the Vatican.