Social cost

Summary

Social cost in neoclassical economics is the sum of the private costs resulting from a transaction and the costs imposed on the consumers as a consequence of being exposed to the transaction for which they are not compensated or charged. In other words, it is the sum of private and external costs. This might be applied to any number of economic problems: for example, social cost of carbon has been explored to better understand the costs of carbon emissions for proposed economic solutions such as a carbon tax. Private costs refer to direct costs to the producer for producing the good or service. Social cost includes these private costs and the additional costs (or external costs) associated with the production of the good which are not accounted for by the free market. In short, when the consequences of an action cannot be taken by the initiator, we will have external costs in the society. We will have private costs when initiator can take responsibility for agent's action. Defini

Official source

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Adaptive approaches for the improvement of public transport in Latin American Cities

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Apart from the best-practice cases where public administration has been able to manage the transit service network and implement a strong regulation system, in the majority of Latin American cities public urban transport is supplied by a great number of quasi-artisan operators in an almost deregulated context. The private providers secure an intense but essentially deficient and unbalanced supply. With the growth of the cities and thus, increasing trvel distances, the deficiency of the public transport system becomes more problematic, especially for the lower income groups living on the outskirts. Moreover, the extension of the service, supplied in an increasing number of small vehicles competing on the streets, effects the worsening of traffic congestion and pollution. These problems arise as soon as the public authorities are not able to regulate the transport industry, not to mention to provide an efficient transport system by themselves. The lack of technical skills to plan, regulate and control the services but also weak political motivation are the primary obstacles to solve the poblem. The political and social costs of major regulatory changes often discourage politicans empowered, looking for more vote effective activities and measures. In order to implement an efficient regulation system, a stepwise, adaptive procedure has to be applied, securing over years significant improvements and the maturing of the transport industry.

Elsevier2007

Climate Change and Tourism in Switzerland : Impacts, Vulnerability and Possible Adaptation Measures

Cecilia Matasci

This thesis is part of the MIADAC project (Modeling Sectoral Climate Change Policies: Mitigation, Adaptation, and Acceptance) included in Work Package 4 of the NCCR Climate. It deals with adaptation and acceptance of Switzerland for the tourism sector. In particular, it addresses the vulnerability of this domain towards climate change, the costs and benefits involved and the costs and benefits generated by the possible adaptation measures. The general objectives of this work are three: first, we will assess and evaluate the environmental, economic and social effects of climate change on tourism in Switzerland. Secondly, we will investigate and select the appropriate and most effective public and private adaptation strategies on a national, regional and/or local level. Thirdly, we will evaluate the environmental, economic and social costs and benefits of these strategies. Finally, it will help to identify the elements needed to overcome barriers in order to bring adaptation issues to the upfront of political discussion. For better analyzing the implementation of adaptation measures, their costs and benefits, a case study region of particular vulnerability (Aletsch) has been additionally selected and will be studied by means of a participative process.

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The experimentally observed rise in the single pass methanol production with CO2 and H-2 (T = 200 degreesC, P = 4.3 bar) by in situ product removal over a perm-selective Nafion (R) membrane is verified by model simulations. For this purpose, software was developed which addresses the two rivalling processes (synthesis and permeation) for given catalyst activity and permeation performance of the membrane. The program predicts the production rate of all the reactor gas components leaving the reactor by explicit integration of the gas component and (reactor and mantle) space specific differential rate equations along the symmetry axes of the tubular membrane reactor. The activity of the CO2-tolerant catalyst used was characterized independently by kinetic model analysis; the experimentally determined permeation performance of the membrane for the various reactant gas components by Arrhenius type temperature dependencies. The model confirmed the membrane reactor results satisfactorily well. It was estimated that with 10 mum thin membrane surfaces implemented in commercial methanol synthesis plants and operated under technically relevant conditions (T = 200 degreesC, P = 40 bar, GHSV = 5000 h(-1)), the single pass reactor yield improves by 40% and that the additional costs for the membrane material are two production months only. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

2001