Metatheory
A metatheory or meta-theory is a theory the subject matter of which is theory itself, for example as an analysis or description of existing theory. For mathematics and mathematical logic, a metatheory is a mathematical theory about another mathematical theory. Meta-theoretical investigations are part of the philosophy of science. The topic of metascience is an attempt to use scientific knowledge to improve the practice of science itself. The study of metatheory became widespread during the 20th century after its application to various topics, including scientific linguistics and its concept of metalanguage. Metascience Metascience is the use of scientific method to study science itself. Metascience is an attempt to increase the quality of scientific research while reducing wasted activity; it uses research methods to study how research is done or can be improved. It has been described as "research on research", "the science of science", and "a bird's eye view of science". In the words of John Ioannidis, "Science is the best thing that has happened to human beings ... but we can do it better." In 1966, an early meta-research paper examined the statistical methods of 295 papers published in ten well-known medical journals. It found that, "in almost 73% of the reports read ... conclusions were drawn when the justification for these conclusions was invalid". Meta-research during the ensuing decades found many methodological flaws, inefficiencies, and bad practices in the research of numerous scientific topics. Many scientific studies could not be reproduced, particularly those involving medicine and the so-called soft sciences. The term "replication crisis" was invented during the early 2010s as part of an increasing awareness of the problem. Measures have been implemented to address the issues revealed by metascience. These measures include the pre-registration of scientific studies and clinical trials as well as the founding of organizations such as CONSORT and the EQUATOR Network that issue guidelines for methods and reporting.