Examining African contributions to global health: Reflections on knowledge circulation and innovation

This article unites different disciplinary debates on ‘southern innovation’, ‘theory from the South’, and ‘decolonisation of knowledge’ in order to discuss existing understandings around the role of Africa in the production of health-related knowledge, public health policy, and medical innovation. Arguing that high-income countries have much to learn from the global South when it comes to health-related knowledge and practices, we propose an interdisciplinary research approach to uncovering and examining African contributions to global health, drawing on an ongoing collaborative project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation. We present four empirical case studies concerning drug development, healthcare systems, and urban planning to critically enquire into both historical and contemporary transcontinental knowledge circulation and learning potentials, as much as cases of forgetting and silencing. On this basis, we argue that ‘learning from the South’ must mean more than transplanting quick and cheap technological fixes to serve societies in the global North, but rather recognising the vast contributions that Africans have made to global epistemologies, without losing sight of the asymmetries inherent in South–North knowledge exchanges. Lessons learned might apply to fields other than those discussed here and go far beyond ‘reverse innovation’.

Institutions and Incentives in Knowledge Production and Diffusion: From Science to Innovation

Charles Chadi Ayoubi

This thesis presents four essays providing novel empirical and theoretical insights on the incentives and institutional structures that favor knowledge production and diffusion. The first two studies analyze these processes in the realm of scientific research, while the last two essays evaluate broader applications with vast social welfare implications. The first essay (chapter 2) of this dissertation, in collaboration with Michele Pezzoni and Fabiana Visentin, exploits a dataset on all applicants to a prestigious Swiss grant to explore a central process in academic life: the application for funds. The results suggest that scientists applying to a grant significantly increase their publicationsâ quality and quantity, learn more, and extend their collaboration network. Beyond the effect of applying, receiving the research funds increases the probability of co-authoring with co-applicants, but it does not have any additional effect on other scientific outcomes. These results justified the title of the chapter since, as it is the case in the Olympics, in research grants, âthe important thing is not to win, it is to take part.â The second essay (chapter 3), also in collaboration with Michele Pezzoni and Fabiana Visentin, uses the same empirical context to explore the determinants of knowledge flows among collaborating scientists. The chapter proposes a novel methodology based on journal references to track knowledge flows among researchers working together. The results suggest that geographical distance does not significantly affect the knowledge flows between team members, but the cognitive distance separating two members does. More specifically, there is an inverted U-curve effect of cognitive distance on the learning among team members: the higher the distance between two scientists in terms of subjects studied, the more they exchange knowledge, up to the point when the distance becomes detrimental because they have too little common ground to communicate. The third essay (chapter 4), in collaboration with Boris Thurm, goes beyond the exploration of the determinants for scientistsâ knowledge production and diffusion to delve into the incentives of all individuals to exchange knowledge. The chapter has two major contributions. First, it acts as a literature review of the empirical evidence on non-financial incentives for knowledge diffusion, such as social recognition, career prospects, and moral considerations. Second, the chapter proposes a simple economic model with heterogeneous agents holding both selfish and moral motives to derive some novel policy implications. The last essay (chapter 5), in collaboration with Dominique Foray, delves into a specific case of knowledge diffusion, the integration of machine learning technologies in healthcare. The analysis suggests that machine learning has the potential for spurring innovation in healthcare but faces several institutional levers. Collecting quantitative data on patents and publications, and qualitative data on hospitals, the results show that machine learning affects healthcare in different ways than older information and communication technologies. The apparition of new business models encourages tech giants to enter the healthcare sector. These patterns have the potential to increase social welfare by reducing externalities in terms of innovation complementarities, but they pose new challenges such as competition policy and human capital formation.

EPFL2020

The R&D Kiss of Death: Empirical Evidences on Failed Cooperation

Stéphane Lhuillery

This paper studies failure to R&D cooperation embracing all research ties, those carried out with research organizations (universities, laboratories and research centers) and/or industrial partners, controlling for firms’ characteristics and sample selection thanks to the French Community Innovation Survey. Using a cross-section model on 2375 innovating firms, we address two questions that are still of interest thanks to the scarcity of empirical evidences: the first one is with whom an R&D cooperation failure is more likely to occur. Secondly, is there any learning effect emerging from previous collaboration? Findings show that failures are more likely to occur when partners are customers, public research organizations or competitors. The likelihood to fail is high and similar for R&D partnerships with competitors or PROs. Further investigation suggests that foreign partners are harder to deals with than national ones and those difficulties are centered on R&D cooperation with foreign universities. Regarding learning to cooperate, our results suggest that former R&D links do not lower the probability to fail with a category of partner even if it boosts the likelihood to cooperate. A stronger appropriation regime influences the likelihood to R&D cooperate but also the probability not to fail. We also provide evidences that large firms, especially belonging to groups, and R&D intensive firms are more likely not to encounter a failure in their R&D alliances. Government support is also found negatively correlated with failure likelihood. Firms with activities in high tech industries or with strong appropriation regimes are also found less likely to fail in their R&D partnerships. Finally, we show that cooperation failures cannot be considered independent from the decision to collaborate in R&D.

2006

Prior knowledge in Kernel methods

Alexei Pozdnoukhov

Machine Learning is a modern and actively developing field of computer science, devoted to extracting and estimating dependencies from empirical data. It combines such fields as statistics, optimization theory and artificial intelligence. In practical tasks, the general aim of Machine Learning is to construct algorithms able to generalize and predict in previously unseen situations based on some set of examples. Given some finite information, Machine Learning provides ways to exract knowledge, describe, explain and predict from data. Kernel Methods are one of the most successful branches of Machine Learning. They allow applying linear algorithms with well-founded properties such as generalization ability, to non-linear real-life problems. Support Vector Machine is a well-known example of a kernel method, which has found a wide range of applications in data analysis nowadays. In many practical applications, some additional prior knowledge is often available. This can be the knowledge about the data domain, invariant transformations, inner geometrical structures in data, some properties of the underlying process, etc. If used smartly, this information can provide significant improvement to any data processing algorithm. Thus, it is important to develop methods for incorporating prior knowledge into data-dependent models. The main objective of this thesis is to investigate approaches towards learning with kernel methods using prior knowledge. Invariant learning with kernel methods is considered in more details. In the first part of the thesis, kernels are developed which incorporate prior knowledge on invariant transformations. They apply when the desired transformation produce an object around every example, assuming that all points in the given object share the same class. Different types of objects, including hard geometrical objects and distributions are considered. These kernels were then applied for images classification with Support Vector Machines. Next, algorithms which specifically include prior knowledge are considered. An algorithm which linearly classifies distributions by their domain was developed. It is constructed such that it allows to apply kernels to solve non-linear tasks. Thus, it combines the discriminative power of support vector machines and the well-developed framework of generative models. It can be applied to a number of real-life tasks which include data represented as distributions. In the last part of the thesis, the use of unlabelled data as a source of prior knowledge is considered. The technique of modelling the unlabelled data with a graph is taken as a baseline from semi-supervised manifold learning. For classification problems, we use this apporach for building graph models of invariant manifolds. For regression problems, we use unlabelled data to take into account the inner geometry of the input space. To conclude, in this thesis we developed a number of approaches for incorporating some prior knowledge into kernel methods. We proposed invariant kernels for existing algorithms, developed new algorithms and adapted a technique taken from semi-supervised learning for invariant learning. In all these cases, links with related state-of-the-art approaches were investigated. Several illustrative experiments were carried out on real data on optical character recognition, face image classification, brain-computer interfaces, and a number of benchmark and synthetic datasets.