Race and genetics

Researchers have investigated the relationship between race and genetics as part of efforts to understand how biology may or may not contribute to human racial categorization. Many constructions of race are associated with phenotypical traits and geographic ancestry, and scholars like Carl Linnaeus have proposed scientific models for the organization of race since at least the 18th century. Following the discovery of Mendelian genetics and the mapping of the human genome, questions about the biology of race have often been framed in terms of genetics. A wide range of research methods have been employed to examine patterns of human variation and their relations to ancestry and racial groups, including studies of individual traits, studies of large populations and genetic clusters, and studies of genetic risk factors for disease. Research into race and genetics has also been criticized as emerging from, or contributing to, scientific racism. Some have interpreted genetic studies of traits and populations as evidence to justify social inequalities associated with race, despite the fact that patterns of human variation have been shown to be mostly clinal, with human genetic code being approximately 99.9% identical between individuals, and with no clear boundaries between groups. There is ongoing scientific debate regarding the definition and meaning of race in genetic and biomedical research. Some researchers argue that race can act as a "proxy" for genetic ancestry because individuals of the same racial category may share a common ancestry, but others advocate for distinguishing between biology and the social, political, cultural, and economic factors that contribute to race as most commonly understood. Race (human categorization) The concept of "race" as a classification system of humans based on visible physical characteristics emerged over the last five centuries, influenced by European colonialism. However, there is widespread evidence of what would be described in modern terms as racial consciousness throughout the entirety of recorded history.