Révolution | EPFL Graph Search

[[Image:Wappers belgian revolution.jpg|thumb|Illustration de la « contagion révolutionnaire » : avec lÉpisode des journées de septembre 1830, les autorités redoutent un embrasement en Belgique à la suite des Trois Glorieuses en France(peint par Gustave Wappers - Musées royaux des beaux-arts de Belgique).]] thumb|La Liberté guidant le peuple, de Eugène Delacroix célèbre la révolution des Trois Glorieuses des 27, 28 et 29 juillet 1830. Une révolution est un renversement brusque d’un régime politique par la force. Elle est aussi définie par le Larousse comme un « changement brusque et violent dans la structure politique et sociale d'un État, qui se produit quand un groupe se révoltant contre les autorités en place, prend le pouvoir et réussit à le garder ». Le mot « révolution » n'apparaît dans le langage courant qu'à la fin du , lors de la Glorieuse Révolution anglaise de 1688, qui est une prise du pouvoir exécutif par une oligarchie ploutocratique. La Révolution française de 1789 a au départ la même intention, mais y échoue, et constitue un fait historique plus composite. On rebaptise a posteriori de « première révolution » la guerre civile anglaise qui vit le renversement de la monarchie catholique par une république calviniste dictatoriale. Le mot prend ensuite des significations variées, certains se réclamant du mouvement libéral anglais du , d'autres du mouvement socialiste anglais du et de Marx, qui développe la notion de « révolution prolétaire », par opposition aux « révolutions bourgeoises » précédentes. Au , le Français Tocqueville est le premier intellectuel à porter un regard critique sur le « mouvement révolutionnaire » du siècle précédent, qu'il ne dissocie pas d'une tendance des nations à s'instituer en États (centralisés ou fédérés, mais aux pouvoirs sans cesse étendus), tandis que, face aux inégalités croissantes que génère le capitalisme, l'Allemand Karl Marx développe les premières approches théoriques d'une « révolution prolétaire », visant à mettre fin aux inégalités sociales provoquées par le capitalisme dans les pays industrialisés.

The Role of Ocean Space in Contemporary Urbanization

Nancy Raewyn Couling

Although the ocean is investigated by many scientific fields, research about ocean space is scarce. But energy production, extraction of resources, infrastructural and logistical development is increasing incrementally, resulting in a quantum shift in scale and intensity of spatial demands. Almost no part of the global ocean remains unaffected by human impact. The ocean is therefore a site of spatial and environmental convergence, a type of âhinterlandâ to urbanized territories. While these developments are ephemeral in relative urban terms, often remote and hard to decipher, they also carve out vast territories and leave lasting physical legacies. These phenomena have largely escaped spatial articulation. History is rich in examples of radical forms of urbanization which engaged the ocean as a network agent, without claiming territorial rights. Intensified activities, however have led to the territorialization of the ocean through the establishment of fixed exclusive economic zones. A fundamental contradiction between open ocean systems and bounded space becomes apparent. As opposed to to a territory defined by political borders, this thesis proposes an integrated, kinetic definition of ocean territory based on oceanography and biological thresholds with which urbanizing forces interact. Both the oceanâs inherent spatial properties and cultural interventions become active components. Based on this definition, the first objective is to identify and define specific forms of urbanization within ocean space. Extended urbanization refers to one of the three interacting moments of urbanization proposed by Brenner and Schmid as part of their developing theory on planetary urbanization. This has its conceptual roots in the dual urban processes implosion-explosion as described by Lefebvre in The Urban Revolution. As a specific form of extended urbanization, I argue that ocean space participates in the loose, uneven, and indistinct morphologies we are only beginning to recognize as âurbanâ. Ocean urbanization is researched first through literature pertaining to four topics which permeate interactions with ocean space and which each represent a rich field of urban theory; Networks, Seascape, Technology and Ecology. Empirical research is then carried out on two case studies; the Barents and the Baltic Seas. These seas undergo a spatial analysis based on the proposed definition of ocean territory. Under urbanization processes, networks lace the ocean floor, the seascape produces energy, technology monitors ecosystems and ecology embraces petroleum exploration. The study distills properties common to both seas, but also distinct manifestations of urban processes within each context. As a result, nine principles of urbanization can be identified. The seas also revealed dispersed intensities in particular locations. Five such situations were chosen as the object of a closer study, which are then proposed as typological conditions: Interpenetration Contraction, Expansion, Assemblage and Confluence. The second objective of the thesis is to relate these findings to current Marine Spatial Planning. What can architects contribute to the conceptualizing, mapping and managing of ocean space? A critical appraisal of ocean planning practice in relation to the research findings, concludes that the architectural challenge is to redraw limits according to ocean dynamics and to launch the ocean project.

EPFL2015

Scarcity and Ocean Space - Case-Study Barents Sea, Norway

Nancy Raewyn Couling

Urban systems operate at a multitude of scales, densities and levels of specialization over vast areas of the planet, as has been pointed out by Lefebvre in The Production of Space and The Urban Revolution and more recently by Neil Brenner and Christian Schmid in their essay Planetary Urbanization. Pressure on ocean space for energy production, extraction of resources, infrastructural and logistical development is steadily increasing, making the ocean a site of spatial and environmental convergence, a type of urban “hinterland”.While ephemeral in relative dimensions over time , critical nodes are beginning to emerge where the vast scale of the ocean is confined by physical limits.The first part of this paper examines ocean space in terms of scarcity within this context. Scarcity has been discussed as a relational term, relative to need or demand (Samuel and Robert, 2010) and in fact as a condition produced by ever-changing and newly created “needs”(Luks, 2010). In spite of market dynamics, some commodities have a stable and absolute quantity. “[...] the total quantity of the stuff named H2O remains unchanged through the hydrological cycle, neither created nor destroyed”(Samuel and Robert, 2010, p.110). The limitedness of ocean space completes the conception of a finite world. It also highlights the inherent problematic of measurable quantities and boundaries in relation to scarcity, both of which pose challenges to current design vocabulary and planning methods. Marine resources are considered a common heritage of mankind.The UN supports the “Marine Spatial Planning” (MSP) initiative, currently being carried out by a handful of countries and ideally aimed at a bal- ance of both use and protection of marine resources. Examples of MSP demonstrate, however, the strong link between economic priorities and ocean planning.This point will be illustrated by spatial plans for the German EEZs in the North Sea, since MSP is well advanced in Germany. Limits to conventional planning, and the need for a new form of design when dealing with a complex, three-dimensional ecosystem such as the ocean, become apparent. Part one concludes with selected theoretical positions, which can serve to inform spatial conceptualizations better adapted to ocean conditions. This discussion draws on a case-study carried out by the EPFL laboratoire Bâle (laba) on the Barents Sea- a resource-rich territory four times the size of Norway. Here, for the first time, the receding ice-front has made both the vast oil and gas reserves more readily accessible and the Northern Sea Route commercially viable, posing a critical environmental dilemma.The design re- search resulted in both long-term development plans, called ‘Territorial Constitutions’ - consisting of a plan and written articles of constitution- followed by architectural projects anchored within this framework. Selected projects, which illustrate innovative ways of designing with the specific characteristics of the ocean, will be discussed in the second part of this paper.

2014

The Role of Ocean Space in Contemporary Urbanization

Nancy Raewyn Couling

EPFL2015

Scarcity and Ocean Space - Case-Study Barents Sea, Norway

Nancy Raewyn Couling

2014