Licence universitaire

A licentiate (abbreviated Lic.) is an academic degree present in many countries, representing different educational levels. It may be similar to a master's degree when issued by pontifical universities and other universities in Europe, Latin America, and Syria. The term is also used for a person who holds this degree. The term derives from Latin licentia, "freedom" (from Latin licēre, "to be allowed"), which is applied in the phrases licentia docendi (also licentia doctorandi), meaning "permission to teach", and licentia ad practicandum (also licentia practicandi), meaning "permission to practice", signifying someone who holds a certificate of competence to practise a profession. Academic degree#History The Gregorian Reform of the Catholic Church led to an increased focus on the liberal arts in episcopal schools during the 11th and 12th centuries, with Pope Gregory VII ordering all bishops to make provisions for the teaching of liberal arts. Chancellors and scholasters exercised a high degree of control over who could teach within their locus magisterii, or area of teaching authority. Throughout the 12th century, the degree of their control tightened to such an extent that they had essential monopolies over all teachers in their dioceses, and teachers were barred from acting as instructors without the explicit authorization of their scholasters. Conflicts sometimes arose between the scholasters and local independent educators who operated educational facilities without their permission, and chancellors often demanded expensive gifts before granting a license to teach. In response to these escalating abuses of power, Pope Alexander III demanded that a free licentia docendi should be granted to anyone deemed qualified to teach. This allowed the Church to progressively centralize its educational control, reducing the power of individual scholasters. Originally, for the student in the medieval university the licentia docendi was of a somewhat different nature than the academic degrees of bachelor, master or doctor.

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Electron-electron interactions play an important role in graphene and related systems and can induce exotic quantum states, especially in a stacked bilayer with a small twist angle(1-7). For bilayer graphene where the two layers are twisted by the 'magic a ...

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Doctor of Philosophy

A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae) is the most common degree at the highest academic level, awarded following a course of study and research. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, normally in the form of a dissertation, and defend their work before a panel of other experts in the field.

Système éducatif en Suède

Le système éducatif suédois fonctionne ainsi : chaque élève doit être scolarisé de 7 à 16 ans, soit pour une durée de 9 ans, de manière obligatoire. Après l'âge de 16 ans, on peut suivre l'enseignement dans une université. Le système scolaire suédois s’est nettement dégradé depuis les années 2000. Le pays a régulièrement perdu des places au classement Pisa, alors que le nombre d'enseignants et les investissements dans l’éducation diminuaient.

Thèse

Une thèse (du nom grec thesis, se traduisant par « action de poser ») est une affirmation ou prise de position d'un locuteur, à l'égard du sujet ou du thème qu'il évoque. En philosophie et rhétorique, une thèse est une affirmation, qui peut se résumer en une simple phrase, mais est généralement soutenue par un ensemble organisé d'hypothèses, d'arguments et de conclusions. Il s'agit donc de la position d'un auteur, d’une école, d’une doctrine ou d’un mouvement sur un sujet donné.

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