Evaluation of Weld-induced Residual Stresses in S690 Steel

The objective of this project is to analyse welding processes in high strength low-carbon steel grade S690 in numerical simulation with MORFEO codes and in experiments with a Gleeble® thermo-mechanical simulator instrument. The influence of phase transformation on residual stresses is investigated with simulations on plate to plate and on tube to plate connections. Furthermore, this study investigates the effects of element activation on numerical results and the possibilities to simplify multi-pass welding by lumped models. In addition to literature based descriptions of temperature depending steel properties, experimental tests are conducted to survey the behavior of steel grad S690 at elevated temperatures.

Numerical Simulation of Macrosegregation : a Comparison between FVM and FEM Predictions and a Confrontation with Experiments

Jean-Luc Desbiolles, Jacques Rappaz, Michel Rappaz

Micro-macrosegregation calculations have been performed for a rectangular cavity containing either a Pb-48 wt pct Sn alloy or a Sn-5 wt pct Pb alloy. The numerical results calculated with a finite volume method (FVM) and a finite element method (FEM) are compared with experimental results previously obtained by Hebditch and Hunt.([1]) The two methods are based on the same average conservation equations governing heat and mass transfer and the same assumptions: lever rule, equal and constant density of the solid and liquid phases (except in the buoyancy term), permeability of the mushy zone given by the Carman-Kozeny relation, and no transport of the solid phase. Although the same parameters are used in both calculations, small differences are observed as a result of the different formulations. In particular, the instabilities appearing in the mushy zone (channels) of the Sn-5 wt pct Pb alloy are more pronounced with the FVM formulation as compared with FEM, whereas the opposite trend is observed for the Pb-48 wt pct Sn alloy. Nevertheless, the final segregation maps at the end of solidification compare fairly well with the experimental findings.

1998

Modélisation des transformations de phase à l'état solide dans les aciers et application au traitement thermique par induction

Alain Jacot

In the first part of this work a comprehensive model of the continuous hardening of 3D-axisymmetric steel components by induction heating has been developed. In the model, the Maxwell and heat flow equations are solved using a mixed numerical formulation : the inductor and the workpiece are enmeshed with finite elements (FE) but boundary elements (BE) are used for the solution of the electromagnetic equations in the ambient air. This method allows the inductor to be moved with respect to the workpiece without any remeshing procedure. The heat flow equation is solved for the workpiece using the same FE mesh. For the thermal boundary conditions, a net radiation method has been implemented to account for grey diffuse bodies and the viewing factors of the element facets are calculated using a "shooting" technique. These calculations have been coupled to a metallurgical model describing the solid state transformations that occur during both heating and cooling. From the local thermal history, the evolution of the various phase fractions are predicted from TTT-diagrams using an additivity principle. A micro-enthalpy method has been implemented in the heat flow calculations in order to account for the latent heat released by the various transformations. At each time step, the local properties of the material, in particular its magnetic permeability, are updated according to the new temperatures and magnetic field. Special attention has been taken for the description of the boundary conditions associated with the water spraying below the inductor. The heat transfer coefficient has been deduced from the inverse modelling of temperatures measured at various locations of a test piece. This preliminary work has been complemented with measurements of the magnetic permeability of the 42CrMo4 steel from which the workpieces are made. This part of the study also includes dilatometric measurements for the verification of the additivity principle used in the simulation. The model has been applied to three cases of increasing complexity : induction stream heating of a steel cylinder without quenching, stream quenching of a steel cylinder and, finally, stream quenching of a non-cylindrical workpiece. The results of the simulation have been compared with experimental cooling curves, microstructures and hardness profiles. In the second part of this work, the phase transformations that occur in hypoeutectoid steels during heating have been investigated at the scale of the microstructure according to a microscopic approach. Several models have been developed in order to describe the various steps of the austenitisation process : (i) pearlite dissolution, (ii) transformation of ferrite into austenite and homogenization, (iii) grain growth in austenite. In a first approach, each step has been modeled separately. The dissolution of pearlite has been described using a two-dimensional finite element model with a deforming mesh and a remeshing procedure. The diffusion equation has been solved in austenite (γ) for a typical domain representative of a periodic structure of ferrite (α) and cementite (θ) lamellae. The α/γ and θ/γ interfaces are allowed to move with respect to the local equilibrium condition, including curvature effects via the Gibbs-Thompson coefficient. The model has been used to predict the concentration field and the shape of the interface at different stages of the pearlite dissolution. Maps representing the steady state dissolution rate as a function of the temperature and lamellae spacing have been obtained for small values of overheating. The appearance of a non-steady state regime at higher temperature has been discussed. The transformation of ferrite into austenite has been described using a pseudo-front tracking finite volume approach for solving the diffusion equation in a 1D, 2D or 3D domain. At the start of the computation, the volume is made of ferritic particles and austenitic zones resulting from the pearlite dissolution. The model allows to calculate the kinetics of the phase transformation as a function of the temperature and the initial microstructure. Although the comparison of the transformation kinetics with experimental results was quite satisfactory, it appeared that the calculated kinetics were slightly slower. This effect has been attributed to the other alloying elements which are contained in the Ck45 steel used for the experiments. This discrepancy has also been explained by a stereological effect which is due to the calculation in a 2D section instead of a 3D domain as demonstrated by a comparison of 2D and 3D simulations. The austenitic grain growth has been described with two models based respectively on a Monte Carlo technique and a mechanical approach. A methodology for obtaining a correspondence between the simulation time scale and real time has been presented and applied to the Ck45 steel. The value of the exponent n of the grain growth law d = Κ t1/n (where d is the mean diameter and t the time) has been determined for both models. The mechanical model (n=2) turned out to describe perfectly the case of normal grain growth as it occurs in liquid-gas systems. However the results of the Monte Carlo simulation (n=2.3) are in better agreement with the non-ideal behaviour of the Ck45 steel. The influence of the impurities and particles which are present in real materials should be taken into account in both models if a more quantitative agreement is to be obtained. Finally, a combined model coupling the various steps of the austenitisation process has been proposed. It allowed to show that the assumption consisting in dividing the process in three separate steps is valid in most cases. This combined model is a first attempt for a comprehensive modelling of the austenitisation process.

EPFL1997

Multi-configuration evaluation of a megajoule-scale high-temperature latent thermal test-bed

Maurizio Barbato, Selmar Rudolf Binder, Sophia Haussener, Nithin Mallya, Alberto Ortona, Clemens Gregor Suter

Thermal energy storage via latent heat provides an energy dense solution and, during discharge, a hot stream at a well-defined temperature. Utilizing metal phase change materials (PCMs) and high-temperature operation might enable fast (dis)charging and application in previously unexplored areas (e.g. high-temperature processing industry). But detailed characterization and design guidelines of high-temperature metal latent heat storage systems with tailored characteristics are missing. Here, we introduce a combined experimental-numerical characterization and design tool for high-temperature heat storage units. We apply it to a megajoule-scale test-bed operated with steel encapsulated Al68.5Cu26.5Si5 (weight%) (melting temperature 791 K) as the PCM and air as heat transfer fluid (HTF) for charging and discharging. Thermocouples positioned at multiple locations throughout the storage unit are used to characterize the performance and heterogeneity. For the inaugural experimental campaign, three encapsulated tubes with a total of 1.83 kg PCM were vertically arranged in one of the modular stacks and several multi-hour charging/discharging cycles were performed with the HTF heated up to 30 - 70 K above and below the PCM melting point at a flow rate of 1500 lmin(-1). Specifically designed open-cell cellular Si-SiC lattices were wrapped around the PCM tubes to enhance the heat transfer. The experimental results showed a near-isothermal (+/- 10 K) exit temperature discharge maintained for 0.39 2.67 h. Temperature variations throughout the test-bed indicated that test-bed design is important to ensure homogeneous usage of the PCM and controlled phase change. A quasi-1D lumped parameter multi-mode heat transfer model was developed to quantify the thermal stratification within the PCM, heat losses, and phase change characteristics in the thermal storage, and provided explanation and quantification for the experimentally observed heterogeneities. The model was used to extrapolate the heat storage characteristics to larger scales: a 16.84 MJ and 50.51 MJ latent heat storage with the modular stacks filled with 25.7 kg (42 encapsulated tubes) and 77 kg (126 encapsulated tubes) of the PCM, respectively. The coupled experimental- numerical approach allowed for model validation, explanation of experimental variation, and to provide general design guidelines for practically relevant latent high-temperature (metal) thermal energy storage.