Social welfare functionIn welfare economics, a social welfare function is a function that ranks social states (alternative complete descriptions of the society) as less desirable, more desirable, or indifferent for every possible pair of social states. Inputs of the function include any variables considered to affect the economic welfare of a society. In using welfare measures of persons in the society as inputs, the social welfare function is individualistic in form.
Cost of electricity by sourceDifferent methods of electricity generation can incur a variety of different costs, which can be divided into three general categories: 1) wholesale costs, or all costs paid by utilities associated with acquiring and distributing electricity to consumers, 2) retail costs paid by consumers, and 3) external costs, or externalities, imposed on society. Wholesale costs include initial capital, operations & maintenance (O&M), transmission, and costs of decommissioning.
Réserve fédérale des États-UnisLa Réserve fédérale (officiellement Federal Reserve System, souvent raccourci en Federal Reserve ou Fed) est la banque centrale des États-Unis. Elle est créée en , durant les fêtes, par le Federal Reserve Act dit aussi Owen-Glass Act, à la suite de plusieurs crises bancaires, dont la panique bancaire américaine de 1907. Son rôle évolue depuis et elle renforce son indépendance lors de l'instabilité monétaire des années 1975 et 1985.
Renewable energy in developing countriesRenewable energy in developing countries is an increasingly used alternative to fossil fuel energy, as these countries scale up their energy supplies and address energy poverty. Renewable energy technology was once seen as unaffordable for developing countries. However, since 2015, investment in non-hydro renewable energy has been higher in developing countries than in developed countries, and comprised 54% of global renewable energy investment in 2019.
Prices of productionPrices of production (or "production prices"; in German Produktionspreise) is a concept in Karl Marx's critique of political economy, defined as "cost-price + average profit". A production price can be thought of as a type of supply price for products; it refers to the price levels at which newly produced goods and services would have to be sold by the producers, in order to reach a normal, average profit rate on the capital invested to produce the products (not the same as the profit on the turnover).
Market fundamentalismMarket fundamentalism, also known as free-market fundamentalism, is a term applied to a strong belief in the ability of unregulated laissez-faire or free-market capitalist policies to solve most economic and social problems. It is often used as pejorative by critics of said beliefs. Palagummi Sainath believes Jeremy Seabrook, a journalist and campaigner, first used the term. The term was used by Jonathan Benthall in an Anthropology Today editorial in 1991 and by John Langmore and John Quiggin in their 1994 book Work for All.
Mondialisation économiqueCet article est destiné à reprendre et préciser les aspects économiques et financiers de l'article Mondialisation lequel est axé plus largement sur les différentes dimensions du phénomène. La mondialisation économique est l'accélération, à l'échelle mondiale, des échanges de biens et de services rendue possible grâce à la levée progressive des entraves au commerce dans le cadre de l'accord général sur les tarifs douaniers et le commerce (GATT) puis de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) depuis 1995 et par le développement des moyens de transport et de communication.
Réserves de changethumb|upright=1.5|Réserves de devises et d'or, diminuées de leur dette extérieure totale (publique et privée), d'après les données de 2010 du CIA Factbook. Les réserves de change sont des avoirs en devises étrangères et en or détenues par une banque centrale. Elles prennent généralement la forme de bons et obligations du Trésor d'États étrangers, ce qui permet à ces réserves de rapporter un intérêt. Elles sont utilisées par les autorités monétaires pour réguler les taux de change.
Incomplete marketsIn economics, incomplete markets are markets in which there does not exist an Arrow–Debreu security for every possible state of nature. In contrast with complete markets, this shortage of securities will likely restrict individuals from transferring the desired level of wealth among states. An Arrow security purchased or sold at date t is a contract promising to deliver one unit of income in one of the possible contingencies which can occur at date t + 1.
Risk neutral preferencesIn economics and finance, risk neutral preferences are preferences that are neither risk averse nor risk seeking. A risk neutral party's decisions are not affected by the degree of uncertainty in a set of outcomes, so a risk neutral party is indifferent between choices with equal expected payoffs even if one choice is riskier. In the context of the theory of the firm, a risk neutral firm facing risk about the market price of its product, and caring only about profit, would maximize the expected value of its profit (with respect to its choices of labor input usage, output produced, etc.
