Atmospheric heterogeneous reactions of chlorine and bromine containing molecules

This thesis deals with a laboratory study of heterogeneous reactions involving bromine and chlorine containing reservoir species on alkali salt substrates which are relevant to the marine boundary layer, and on ice substrates which are relevant to the lower stratosphere. The aim is to obtain reliable data on uptake coefficients γ and reaction mechanisms for the sake of extrapolation of results obtained in the laboratory to atmospheric conditions. The experiments have been performed in a Teflon coated Knudsen flow reactor equipped with a quadrupole mass spectrometer. The reactions of BrONO2 with solid alkali halides have been studied at ambient temperature. The initial uptake coefficients γ0 of BrONO2 on NaCl and KBr substrates are γ0 = 0.31 ± 0.10 and γ0 = 0.32 ± 0.09, respectively. For NaCl substrates BrCl, Br2 and HCl and for KBr both Br2 and HBr are observed as products. HCl and HBr result from the interaction of NaCl and KBr, respectively, with HNO3 generated in the hydrolysis of BrONO2 with H2O condensed on the salt sample. Using NaCl we observed Br2 which is formed from heterogeneous BrONO2 decomposition occurring on solid KBr samples. Halogen exchange reactions are competing with hydrolysis and decomposition which also take place on non-reactive salts (NaNO3, Na2SO4). A high rate of initial uptake (0.2 ≤ γ0 ≤ 0.4) and a Br2 yield on the order of 50 % are observed on non-reactive salts with a closed mass balance for Br2. The ClONO2-salt system has been reinvestigated. Experiments on NaCl, KBr (reactive salts) and on NaNO3 and Na2SO4 (non-reactive salts) have been performed. The hydrolysis of ClONO2 was not observable in contrast to heterogeneous decomposition which occurred on non-reactive salts with a Cl2 yield of (25 ± 5) %. Calculations have been performed using a 0-D box model in order to observe the effects of heterogeneous chemistry on sea salt in the marine boundary layer. Chlorine and bromine chemistry is activated by heterogeneous reactions occurring on NaCl and KBr which are the sole sources of chlorine and bromine in the model. Simulations performed with chlorine heterogeneous chemistry and gas phase chemistry indicate: 1) Denitrification of the troposphere (NOy converted to solid nitrates). 2) Increase of the oxidative capacity of the troposphere by the release of Cl atoms. When bromine chemistry is added to the model, the recombination reaction of NO2 with BrO leads to an increase of tropospheric denitrification through formation of BrONO2. Calculations show that at high [NOx], the most important bromine reservoir is BrONO2, while at low [NOx] HOBr is the most important bromine reservoir. The uptake of HNO3 on ice, solid sulfuric acid solutions and solid ternary solutions (STS) has been investigated at 180 to 211 K. The uptake coefficient γ decreases from 0.30 at 180 K to 0.06 at 211 K. The Arrhenius representation shows two distinct regimes. The first at low temperatures (180-190 K) shows a constant value γ of 0.3, whereas the second regime at T > 195 K corresponds to an activation energy of Ea = -7 ± 1 kcal/mol. At a fixed temperature, γ is independent of [HNO3] thus confirming a rate law first order in [HNO3]. The γ values of HNO3 on H2SO4/H2O solid solutions linearly decreases from 0.20 (0.10) at 10 wt % H2SO4 to 0.05 (0.03) at 98 wt % H2SO4 at 180 K (200K). The γ values of HNO3 with STS of H2SO4/HNO3/H2O is equal to 0.10 ± 0.03 in the temperature range 185-195 K at conditions where the composition of the interface was held constant at the given temperature by adding an external flow of H2O. Br2O hydrolysis on ice surfaces occurs rapidly in the chosen temperature range of 180 to 210 K. At a fixed temperature the uptake kinetics follow an apparent first order rate law in [Br2O]. The observed negative temperature dependence leads to an activation energy Ea for heterogeneous hydrolysis of -2.3 ± 0.6 kcal/mol. These facts point towards a complex reaction mechanism implying that the interaction of Br2O with ice is not an elementary reaction. BrONO2 hydrolysis has been measured on bulk (B), condensed (C) and single crystal (SC) ice in the temperature range 180-210 K. On all types of ice, HOBr and Br2O are observed as products. At a fixed temperature the rate law is first order in [BrONO2] with γ ≈ 0.3 at 180 K. The observed negative temperature dependence leads to an activation energy Ea for the hydrolysis of BrONO2 on pure ice of -2.0 ± 0.2, -2.1 ± 0.2 and -6.6 ± 0.3 kcal/mol on (C), (B) and (SC) ice, respectively, pointing towards different kinetics of BrONO2 on these different types of ice. Doping the ice samples with HBr leads to the formation of Br2, preceded by BrONO2 hydrolysis. The Arrhenius representation corresponds to an activation energy of Ea = -1.2 ± 0.2 kcal/mol. We investigated the structural properties of the near-surface region of various types of HX (X = Cl or Br) doped ice. Basically, we studied the time dependent [HX] in the interface region using the fast reaction titration XONO2 + HX → X2 + HNO3. These experiments reveal that HX is located near the surface of the substrate in a well defined region of thickness I. The HX molecules composing the interface are immediately available for the titration reaction, whatever the flow of XONO2. In the temperature range 190-200 K, we measured a value of IHCl = 43 ± 16, 250 ± 50 and 444 ± 120 nm for (SC), (C) and (B) ices, respectively and IHBr = 110 ± 15 nm on (C) ice at 205K. Finally, we assessed the bulk diffusion coefficient for HX, DHX by modeling our results according to Fick's laws of diffusion. We obtained values of DHCl = 4.5·10-15 - 1.0·10-12 cm2/s at 190 K and DHBr = (6.5 ± 3.0)·10-15 cm2/s at 205 K.

Heterogeneous kinetics of some atmospherically relevant reactions

A low pressure reactor (Knudsen cell) coupled to molecular beam modulated mass spectrometry was used to study the heterogeneous kinetics of the following three systems: (1) NO2 on amorphous carbon, (2) H2O vapor on ice and (3) gaseous HCl on ice. The first system was investigated at ambient temperature while the two last ones were investigated at temperatures typical of the stratosphere, that is roughly between 160 and 220K. The solid phase samples correspond to model surfaces whose physicochemical properties come very close to the ones of atmospheric particulates. Firstly, we studied the interaction of gaseous NO2 with three different commercial samples of amorphous carbon having widely differing physicochemical properties. Using in situ laser-induced fluorescence, the only major product was unambiguously determined to be NO with the oxidation product of carbon apparently remaining on the surface. Probing the gas phase with mass spectrometry (MS), both pulsed valve dosing and steady state experiments were performed and revealed a complex reaction mechanism for both the uptake as well as product formation. The initial uptake coefficient γo for NO2 was (6.4±2.0)·10-2 and proved to be identical within experimental uncertainty for all three types of amorphous carbon. The initial NO2 uptake rate was independent of the mass of the carbon sample and scaled with its external geometrical surface. Applying a simple chemical kinetic model to both pulsed dosing and steady state experiments resulted in an effective surface for uptake on amorphous carbon ranging between a factor of 2.8 to 8.4 larger than the geometrical surface area, but inversely proportional to the measured BET surface area of the three types of amorphous carbon. This means that the amorphous carbon with the highest BET surface (FW2) had the lowest external surface for NO2 adsorption. The chemical kinetic model included competing processes between Langmuir-type adsorption and inhibition controlling the adsorption kinetics of NO2 and revealed that the NO generation rate differed greatly between the three carbon samples examined. All samples showed saturation effects of differing degree that were partially reversible through prolonged pumping at 10-4 Torr and/or heating. Virgin amorphous carbon samples did not take up H2O vapor at 20 mTorr, and no HONO and/or HNO3 was detected in simultaneous NO2/H2O exposure experiments. CO and CO2 were detected when a sample previously exposed to NO2 was heated by an incandescent lamp. Moreover, upon heating such a sample, a MS signal m/e 62 originating from NO3 and/or N2O5 was detected. In addition to the experiments conducted on the three commercial carbon samples, we carried out uptake experiments of NO2 on acetylene soot. Originating from the flame of an acetylene burner, this soot was freshly deposited on glass dishes before each experiment. The initial uptake coefficient γo for NO2 was measured to be (3.0±1.1)·10-2 is smaller by a factor of two compared to γo observed in the uptake on commercial samples whose mass was a factor of 10 higher. In addition to NO, a net formation of HONO (m/e 47) was observed. This HONO formation is strongly dependent on the instantaneous water desorption from the sample as well as on the NO2 partial pressure in the reactor. On the other hand, it is not enhanced by an external water flow which did not show any interaction with the carbon sample. Upon heating the sample using an incandescent lamp, significant amounts of water desorbed, suggesting that the water vapor had condensed into the micropores of the soot during combustion. No quantitative results are presented yet. However, as no correlation between HONO formation and NO partial pressure has been observed so far, we suggest a reaction mechanism that only involves NO2 and H2O but no NO: 2 NO2 (g) + H2O HONO + HNO3 In a second study, the kinetics of condensation and evaporation of water on ice was determined in the temperature range of 170 to 220K. The rate of evaporation Fev corresponds to the evaporation of 70±10 monolayers of H2O per second at 200K. The condensation rate constant kc has a negative activation energy of -3.l±1.5kcal/mol which is significantly larger than the one recently measured by Haynes et al. We report the first real time kinetic measurements of water condensation on ice at stratospherically relevant temperatures. At temperatures above 160K, pulsed dosing experiments show a dose dependence of the condensation rate coefficient. For example, the condensation rate coefficient increases by a factor of five with a 1000 fold increase of the H2O dose from 1·1015 to 1·1018 molecules per pulse at 180K. This pressure dependence of the condensation rate constant may be explained by an autocatalytic mechanism involving the competition of two condensation channels. These two channels feed two different surface species, one of which leads to autocatalytic condensation. This mechanism gives insight into the manner in which a gas phase molecule is stepwise incorporated into tetrahedrally coordinated bulk ice. In a third and ongoing study, the uptake kinetics of HCl on ice has been investigated by pulsed valve experiments in the temperature range of 180 to 210K and are discussed as a function of the state of the surface. In fact, some of the pulsed valve experiments present a relaxation to a steady state level. It is shown that this level originates from the evaporation of a liquid solution corresponding to a temperature specific HCl concentration. The threshold of the injected dose leading to this solution layer is estimated to be 8·1014 molecules. This threshold corresponding to a fraction of a monolayer may be explained by the formation of small domains along grain boundaries or other lattice imperfections. Within detection limit, no difference in keff has been observed for pulses on the solution or on a previously exposed sample without formation of the solution. In the case of pulses forming a solution layer, a fraction of 20±20% of the injected molecules remains permanently adsorbed on the surface. In the temperature range from 210 to 180K, the pulsed valve experiments yield values of keff roughly between 5 and 25s-1 and an activation energy of -1.6±0.7kcal/mol which are consistent with the values observed by Flueckiger in steady state experiments using the 15mm escape aperture (kuni varying from 12 to 23s-1 and an activation energy of -1.9±0.25 kcal/mol).

EPFL1996

Submonolayer growth of cobalt on metallic and insulating surfaces studied by scanning tunneling microscopy and kinetic Monte-Carlo simulations

Philipp Buluschek

Submonolayer epitaxial growth is obtained by the deposition of less than a complete layer of atoms on a single crystal surface. It is of fundamental interest for industrial applications (e.g. in the semiconductor industry) as well as from the point of view of basic research. For example, it is known that nanometer-sized atomic structures (nanostructures) exhibit remarkable physical and chemical properties which can differ greatly from those of bulk matter. In order to investigate these properties, it is often necessary to create large quantities of well defined and possibly spatially ordered nanostructures. One way to achieve this result is self-organized growth where one deposits atoms on a clean crystalline surface and lets the growth process evolve freely. Here, nanostructures result from the atomic diffusion and aggregation processes taking place at the surface. Understanding the exact nature of these processes is of ongoing interest in the field of nanostructure growth. In this thesis we report about submonolayer growth experiments of the ferromagnetic transition metal cobalt. Cobalt was chosen because it exhibits remarkable magnetic properties. These experiments were performed in an ultra-high vacuum chamber and molecular beam epitaxy was used to grow the nanostructures. Observations of the surface were made using a variable-temperature scanning tunneling microscope (STM). In order to get a better understanding of the atomic processes happening at the surface, we developed two adapted computational simulation methods. Kinetic Monte-Carlo (KMC) simulations were used to get an atomistic picture of the surface while mean field rate equations were integrated numerically to yield cluster densities. We study the growth of cobalt on three different surfaces. By depositing Co on a clean Pt(111) crystal surface, we observe that the platinum surface reconstructs by forming star-shaped partial dislocations for sample temperatures above 180 K (-93°C). We also observe that island densities deviate from predictions of all known models towards higher values for these same temperatures. By simulation we are able to show that insertion of Co into the topmost platinum layer creates a repulsive network of dislocations. We show that these dislocations act as diffusion inhibiting barriers and thus influence the island density by constraining the free movement of atoms at the surface. We also show that the Co dimer and trimer diffuse on Pt(111) before dissociating and are able to extract corresponding activation barriers. We also study the deposition of Co on a Ru(0001) surface which shows a more conventional temperature dependence. By comparing simulation and experiment we extract all relevant diffusion activation barriers and show that at high temperatures the Co dimer and trimer dissociate. Finally, we investigate the growth of Co on the hexagonal boron nitride superlattice which forms on a Rh(111) surface. On this surface Co clusters form three-dimensional hemispherical dots. We show how the substrate corrugation influences diffusion of Co atoms and that clusters up to the size of the pentamer can diffuse. By simulation, we also extract the relevant migrations and desorption barriers.

EPFL2008

Nitrous Oxide Abatement over Fe-Zeolite

Bryan Bromley

The use of zeolites for catalytic reactions is a field in continuous development. Since it was demonstrated that metal-zeolites are efficient catalysts for NOx abatement, decomposition of nitrous oxide (N2O) over Fe-containing zeolites has attracted great interest by the scientific community mainly due: N2O is the third most important gas contributing to global warming, its concentration in atmosphere is still on the rise and direct N2O decomposition to N2 and O2 is a sustainable alternative. N2O interaction with Fe-zeolite leads to the formation of "special" adsorbed oxygen (often called α-oxygen) with great potential for selective oxidation. Although the focus of a number of studies, the nature of the actives sites for the formation of this adsorbed oxygen is still unclear. The main objectives of this work are: 1) study the decomposition mechanism of N2O over isomorpously substituted Fe-ZSM-5 zeolite aiming on catalyst optimization and 2) optimization and further use of structured Fe-zeolite in novel micro-structured reactor. A number of refined transient kinetics methods were intensively used such as transient response, Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) and Temporal Analysis of Product (TAP). Density Functional Theory (DFT) and in situ IR spectroscopy studies were conducted in collaboration and our results support the following: In chapter 3, quantitative measurements have been carrier out to analyze the effect of temperature on the activation (under helium flow) and the irreversible deactivations that can happen during the pretreatment. The results obtained indicate that high temperature treatment (1273 K) results in the formation of a high amount of α-sites. The addition of a very low fraction of oxygen (2%) in the feed demonstrates that the catalyst is sensitive to its presence. Certain sites can be irreversibly destroyed, a result ascribed to the oxidation of active Fe(II) to Fe2O3 clusters which contain inactive Fe(III). Catalyst treatment at high temperature (1273 K) in He for up to 3 hours, also reduced irreversibly the concentration of α-sites. TPD measurements have shown desorption of oxygen at 3 different temperatures. Desorption at the lowest temperature (650 K) was assign to the α-oxygen recombination. The oxygen which desorbs at 700 K was associated to the oxygen from the deactivated sites. Oxygen which desorbs at the highest temperature (730 K) is originated from the surface NOx that desorbed as NO and O2. After a comparison of the concentration of the molecules accumulated, we propose that NO2 is the adsorbed specie. The mechanism of N2O decomposition on the binuclear oxo-hydroxo bridged extraframework iron core site [FeII(μ-O)(μ-OH)FeII]+ inside the ZSM-5 zeolite has been studied by combining theoretical and experimental approaches (see chapter 4). Rate parameters computed using standard statistical mechanics and transition state theory reveal that elementary catalytic steps involved into N2O decomposition are strongly dependent on the temperature. This theoretical result was contrasted with the experimentally observed steady state kinetics of the N2O decomposition and TPD experiments. As predicted by the theoretical study, the switch of the reaction order with respect to N2O pressure (from zero to one) occurs at around 800 K which confirms a change of the rate determining step from the α-oxygen recombination to α-oxygen formation. The proposed mechanism was also confirmed by O2-TD which confirmed the viability of the binuclear complex. The α-oxygen recombination at low temperature (

EPFL2010