Semi-presidential republic

A semi-presidential republic, or dual executive republic, is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has a popularly elected head of state; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence. While the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and Finland (from 1919 to 2000) exemplified early semi-presidential systems, the term "semi-presidential" was first introduced in 1959 in an article by journalist Hubert Beuve-Méry, and popularized by a 1978 work written by political scientist Maurice Duverger, both of whom intended to describe the French Fifth Republic (established in 1958). Maurice Duverger's original definition of semi-presidentialism stated that the president had to be elected, possess significant power, and serve for a fixed term. Modern definitions merely declare that the head of state has to be elected, and that a separate prime minister that is dependent on parliamentary confidence has to lead the executive. There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism. Under the premier-presidential system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a vote of no confidence. This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, East Timor, France, Lithuania, Madagascar, Mali, Mongolia, Niger, Georgia (2013–2018), Poland (de facto, however, according to the Constitution, Poland is a parliamentary republic), Portugal, Romania, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sri Lanka, Turkey (de facto between 2014-2018, until the constitutional amendment to switch the government to presidential from parliamentary), and Ukraine (since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010).

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Parliamentary republic

A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies.

France

France (fʁɑ̃s), officially the French Republic (République française ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz), is a country located primarily in Western Europe. It also includes overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, giving it one of the largest discontiguous exclusive economic zones in the world. Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea; overseas territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and many islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean.

Cabinet (government)

A cabinet is a body of high-ranking state officials, typically consisting of the executive branch's top leaders. Members of a cabinet are usually called cabinet ministers or secretaries. The function of a cabinet varies: in some countries, it is a collegiate decision-making body with collective responsibility, while in others it may function either as a purely advisory body or an assisting institution to a decision-making head of state or head of government.

“Lausannovores”. Architecture(s) de productions et de consommations locales

Nicolas Pierret

La vision de Lausanne comme ville productive cherche à intégrer les mécanismes de l'agriculture urbaine au sein d'une réflexion architecturale et urbanistique. A l'échelle du territoire, le projet développe un axe vert raccordant la campagne Nord lausannoise au lac Léman. Celui-ci relie en un cheminement piéton les poches vertes existantes, en renforçant leurs présences et leurs diversités. Le long de cet axe prend place une grande variété d'interventions visant à reconnecter les citadins et leur alimentation, et à favoriser la biodiversité lausannoise. Le cœur de ce réseau se situe aux Jardins Botaniques, avec la construction d'un Centre de l'Agriculture Urbaine, lieu de rencontre entre professionnels, chercheurs et citadins. Un pôle de recherche agronomique, dédié à l'agriculture urbaine et à ses techniques, développe de nouvelles méthodes et espèces adaptées à la ville. Il abrite également une banque de gènes des espèces productives, présentée au public dans l'enceinte du jardin botanique. Un pôle de formation permet le transfert de connaissances entre chercheurs, particuliers ou associations. Enfin, un pôle public abrite des expositions, un espace de conseil et de vente de matériel et de semis, ainsi qu'une cuisine didactique destinée à l'éducation alimentaire des citadins. L'ensemble émerge de la colline de Montriond en une construction conjuguant la durabilité et l'intemporalité de la terre avec l'éphémère et la légèreté des serres de verre, pleinement intégré dans le paysage et le cheminement des Jardins Botaniques.

2014

Covers programming concepts using MATLAB, C, and LabVIEW for engineering projects, including a billiards game analysis.