Geiger counter

A Geiger counter (also known as a Geiger–Müller counter or G-M counter) is an electronic instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. It is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics and the nuclear industry. It detects ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger–Müller tube, which gives its name to the instrument. In wide and prominent use as a hand-held radiation survey instrument, it is perhaps one of the world's best-known radiation detection instruments. The original detection principle was realized in 1908 at the University of Manchester, but it was not until the development of the Geiger–Müller tube in 1928 that the Geiger counter could be produced as a practical instrument. Since then, it has been very popular due to its robust sensing element and relatively low cost. However, there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and the energy of incident radiation. Geiger–Müller tube A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger–Müller tube (the sensing element which detects the radiation) and the processing electronics, which display the result. The Geiger–Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied. The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when high energy particles or gamma radiation make the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend discharge effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing and display electronics. This large pulse from the tube makes the Geiger counter relatively cheap to manufacture, as the subsequent electronics are greatly simplified. The electronics also generate the high voltage, typically 400–900 volts, that has to be applied to the Geiger–Müller tube to enable its operation.

Integrated electronics for time-of-flight positron emission tomography photodetectors

Reconstruction of decays to merged photons using end-to-end deep learning with domain continuation in the CMS detector

MALTA-Cz: a radiation hard full-size monolithic CMOS sensor with small electrodes on high-resistivity Czochralski substrate

MALTA-Cz: a radiation hard full-size monolithic CMOS sensor with small electrodes on high-resistivity Czochralski substrate

Integrated electronics for time-of-flight positron emission tomography photodetectors

Reconstruction of decays to merged photons using end-to-end deep learning with domain continuation in the CMS detector