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In immunology, an antigen (Ag) is a molecule, moiety, foreign particulate matter, or an allergen, such as pollen, that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response. Antigens can be proteins, peptides (amino acid chains), polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), lipids, or nucleic acids. Antigens exist on normal cells, cancer cells, parasites, viruses, fungi, and bacteria. Antigens are recognized by antigen receptors, including antibodies and T-cell receptors. Diverse antigen receptors are made by cells of the immune system so that each cell has a specificity for a single antigen. Upon exposure to an antigen, only the lymphocytes that recognize that antigen are activated and expanded, a process known as clonal selection. In most cases, antibodies are antigen-specific, meaning that an antibody can only react to and bind one spec

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Electrochemical sensors for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus

Somanath Jagannath, Neeraj Kumar

Coronavirus (COVID-19), a deadly pandemic has spread worldwide and created many global health issues. Though methods of its detection are being continuously developed for the early detection and monitoring of COVID-19, still there is need for more novel methods. The presently used methods include rapid antigen tests, serological surveys, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), artificial intelligence-based techniques, and assays based on sensors/biosensors. Of all these, RT-PCR test has high sensitivity and specificity though it requires more time for testing and need for skilled technicians. Recently, electrochemical sensors have been developed for rapid monitoring and detection of SARS-CoV-2 from the patient's biological fluid samples. This review covers the recently developed electrochemical sensors that are focused on the detection of viral nucleic acid, immunoglobulin, antigen, and the entire viral particles. In addition, we also compare and assess their detection limits, sensitivities and specificities for the identification and monitoring of COVID-19. Furthermore, this review will address the best practices for the development of electrochemical sensors such as electrode fouling, limit of detection/limit of quantification determination and verification.

ELSEVIER SCIENCE SA2022

Synthetically glycosylated antigens induce antigen-specific tolerance and prevent the onset of diabetes

Martina Damo, Giacomo Olimpio Diaceri, Sachiko Hirosue, Jeffrey Alan Hubbell, Xavier Fredy René Quaglia-Thermes, Michal Mateusz Raczy, David Scott Wilson

Homeostatic antigen presentation by hepatic antigen-presenting cells, which results in tolerogenic T-cell education, could be exploited to induce antigen-specific immunological tolerance. Here we show that antigens modified with polymeric forms of either N-acetylgalactosamine or N-acetylglucosamine target hepatic antigen-presenting cells, increase their antigen presentation and induce antigen-specific tolerance, as indicated by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell deletion and anergy. These synthetically glycosylated antigens also expanded functional regulatory Tcells, which are necessary for the durable suppression of antigen-specific immune responses. In an adoptive-transfer mouse model of type-1 diabetes, treatment with the glycosylated autoantigens prevented T-cell-mediated diabetes, expanded antigen-specific regulatory T cells and resulted in lasting tolerance to a subsequent challenge with activated diabetogenic T cells. Glycosylated autoantigens targeted to hepatic antigen-presenting cells might enable therapies that promote immune tolerance in patients with autoimmune diseases.

2019

Antigens reversibly conjugated to a polymeric glyco-adjuvant induce protective humoral and cellular immunity

Maria Anna Sofia Broggi, Giacomo Olimpio Diaceri, Sachiko Hirosue, Jeffrey Alan Hubbell, Laura Jeanbart, Xavier Fredy René Quaglia-Thermes, Michal Mateusz Raczy, Melody Swartz, Ruyi Wang, David Scott Wilson

Fully effective vaccines for complex infections must elicit a diverse repertoire of antibodies (humoral immunity) and CD8+ T-cell responses (cellular immunity). Here, we present a synthetic glyco-adjuvant named p(Man-TLR7), which, when conjugated to antigens, elicits robust humoral and cellular immunity. p(Man-TLR7) is a random copolymer composed of monomers that either target dendritic cells (DCs) via mannose-binding receptors or activate DCs via Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). Protein antigens are conjugated to p(Man-TLR7) via a self-immolative linkage that releases chemically unmodified antigen after endocytosis, thus amplifying antigen presentation to T cells. Studies with ovalbumin (OVA)-p(Man-TLR7) conjugates demonstrate that OVA-p(Man-TLR7) generates greater humoral and cellular immunity than OVA conjugated to polymers lacking either mannose targeting or TLR7 ligand. We show significant enhancement of Plasmodium falciparum-derived circumsporozoite protein (CSP)-specific T-cell responses, expansion in the breadth of the alpha CSP IgG response and increased inhibition of sporozoite invasion into hepatocytes with CSP-p(Man-TLR7) when compared with CSP formulated with MPLA/QS-21-loaded liposomes-the adjuvant used in the most clinically advanced malaria vaccine. We conclude that our antigen-p(Man-TLR7) platform offers a strategy to enhance the immunogenicity of protein subunit vaccines.

NATURE PUBLISHING GROUP2019

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