Landscape planning

Landscape planning is a branch of landscape architecture. According to Erv Zube (1931–2002) landscape planning is defined as an activity concerned with developing landscaping amongst competing land uses while protecting natural processes and significant cultural and natural resources. Park systems and greenways of the type designed by Frederick Law Olmsted are key examples of landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners analyze broad issues as well as project characteristics which constrain design projects. Landscape planners may work on projects which are of broad geographical scope, concern many land uses or many clients or are implemented over a long period of time. As an example, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning. In Europe Alberti wrote on the need for town squares for markets and specific implementation

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The Transition Workshop sets a new framework and action to accelerate the transition of cities by offering methods for decision makers forge appropriate rules and regulations and providing designers with interdisciplinary knowledge to address the objectives of decarbonizing and resilient cities.

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Landscape architecture

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic design and general en

Landscape design

Landscape design is an independent profession and a design and art tradition, practiced by landscape designers, combining nature and culture. In contemporary practice, landscape design bridges the

Landscape urbanism

Landscape urbanism is a theory of urban design arguing that the city is constructed of interconnected and ecologically rich horizontal field conditions, rather than the arrangement of objects and buil

Scarcity and Ocean Space - Case-Study Barents Sea, Norway

Nancy Raewyn Couling

Urban systems operate at a multitude of scales, densities and levels of specialization over vast areas of the planet, as has been pointed out by Lefebvre in The Production of Space and The Urban Revolution and more recently by Neil Brenner and Christian Schmid in their essay Planetary Urbanization. Pressure on ocean space for energy production, extraction of resources, infrastructural and logistical development is steadily increasing, making the ocean a site of spatial and environmental convergence, a type of urban “hinterland”.While ephemeral in relative dimensions over time , critical nodes are beginning to emerge where the vast scale of the ocean is confined by physical limits.The first part of this paper examines ocean space in terms of scarcity within this context. Scarcity has been discussed as a relational term, relative to need or demand (Samuel and Robert, 2010) and in fact as a condition produced by ever-changing and newly created “needs”(Luks, 2010). In spite of market dynamics, some commodities have a stable and absolute quantity. “[...] the total quantity of the stuff named H2O remains unchanged through the hydrological cycle, neither created nor destroyed”(Samuel and Robert, 2010, p.110). The limitedness of ocean space completes the conception of a finite world. It also highlights the inherent problematic of measurable quantities and boundaries in relation to scarcity, both of which pose challenges to current design vocabulary and planning methods. Marine resources are considered a common heritage of mankind.The UN supports the “Marine Spatial Planning” (MSP) initiative, currently being carried out by a handful of countries and ideally aimed at a bal- ance of both use and protection of marine resources. Examples of MSP demonstrate, however, the strong link between economic priorities and ocean planning.This point will be illustrated by spatial plans for the German EEZs in the North Sea, since MSP is well advanced in Germany. Limits to conventional planning, and the need for a new form of design when dealing with a complex, three-dimensional ecosystem such as the ocean, become apparent. Part one concludes with selected theoretical positions, which can serve to inform spatial conceptualizations better adapted to ocean conditions. This discussion draws on a case-study carried out by the EPFL laboratoire Bâle (laba) on the Barents Sea- a resource-rich territory four times the size of Norway. Here, for the first time, the receding ice-front has made both the vast oil and gas reserves more readily accessible and the Northern Sea Route commercially viable, posing a critical environmental dilemma.The design re- search resulted in both long-term development plans, called ‘Territorial Constitutions’ - consisting of a plan and written articles of constitution- followed by architectural projects anchored within this framework. Selected projects, which illustrate innovative ways of designing with the specific characteristics of the ocean, will be discussed in the second part of this paper.

2014

Amphibian conservation in human shaped environments

Flavio Zanini

Global biodiversity is experiencing a worrying decline. Habitats destruction, associated to their degradation and fragmentation are among the greatest causes. Amphibians are particularly interesting because they are more threatened and decline more rapidly than either birds or mammals. In this context, the objective of our research is to improve some methodological approaches and offer practical scientific bases for decision making in landscape management and amphibian conservation. Our study focuses on fragmented Swiss landscapes. We developed a method that uses land-cover data and expert knowledge to enable a spatially explicit assessment of 1) the temporal changes in the nature conservation value of the landscape and 2) the rehabilitation potential of the landscape. We applied this Geographical Information Systems (GIS) based approach in the Swiss Rhone plain and we used the years 1900 as the reference state. The method constitutes a helpful tool for communication, decision-making and biological conservation management in landscape planning. Effective and optimal species management strategies can only be formulated after relationships between species distribution and environmental factors have been identified. Concerning amphibians, several approaches exist but they generally suffer from two limitations: 1) the spatial autocorrelation (i.e. the dependency between two observations) in data is rarely explicitly analyzed, even if it may affect the accuracy of species-habitat relationships models. We showed how this spatial autocorrelation can be measured and included in logistic models with the example of the agile frog (Rana dalmatina) in north-eastern Switzerland. We used the Moran's I and the autologistic model (i.e. a logistic model including a measure of the spatial arrangement of the response variables). We found that if spatial autocorrelation is not considered, then conclusions on species-habitat relationships can be incorrect. 2) The effect of landscape on amphibian occurrence in ponds is often assumed to be equal in every direction (isotropic). However, barriers and inhospitable surfaces may reduce movement patterns and the area around ponds accessible to species. This implies that the ideal circular area has in reality a shape depending on the surrounding landscape. We developed a method to determine the effect of habitat variables on amphibian species distribution, considering physical barriers in their movement around ponds. We studied two amphibian species: the common toad (Bufo bufo) and the common frog (Rana temporaria) in the Rhone plain. We demonstrated that reducing the boundaries of circular area following barriers, allowed to compute landscape predictors which better explained species distribution. These results suggested that the proposed approach is more pertinent than the traditional circular buffers analysis. Our results stress the necessity to consider barriers and ecological corridors in species distribution models in order to avoid incorrect inferences. Species distribution models are usually established for a single region. It is generally unknown whether the identified relationships between species distribution and environmental variables can be directly transferred to another geographical area. We examined landscape-level habitat relationships for six amphibian species by measuring correlations with their presence in 655 ponds of five different regions. We analyzed several models by using the information-theoretic approach and the Akaike Information criterion (AIC). For five out of six species, the best models predict that site occupation probability depends on region. Our results suggest that caution is needed when predictions of species occurrence and species management strategies are done using models built in other geographic regions. We also observed that connectivity was generally more explicative than landscape variables. In addition, we found that the spatial scale at which habitat affected species occurrence varied from pond to several km around ponds. Management strategies for amphibian conservation should be conducted taking into account the geographic context, connectivity of ponds and habitat characteristics at multiple spatial scales. Finally, we demonstrated that the landscape, separating patches in metapopulation models, has to be considered in order to avoid incorrect conclusions on population viability analyses. We explored how patch occupancy is sensitive to Euclidean (shortest) versus a landscape-based distance (least-cost). We found: 1) from a theoretical standpoint, that inter-patch landscape affects patch occupancy; 2) from a practical and conservation standpoints, which patches should be considered in priority for landscape management. The approach was illustrated in the case of two metapopulations of the Yellow-bellied Toad in the Rhone plain. We applied successfully the developed practical approaches to the case of several amphibian species, but they can doubtlessly be extended to any species functioning on a spatially defined patch basis (e.g. pond, nesting place, den …), structured as a metapopulation and affected by landscape structure during movement. By improving and combining spatially explicit approaches, we are more likely to provide wildlife managers with tools for valuable decision making.

EPFL2006

In human-dominated landscapes, populations and species extinctions are directly related to habitat destruction and fragmentation. To provide genetic diversity as well as population viability, individual exchanges among isolated populations must be maintained. Therefore, animal dispersal processes in fragmented landscape become an important topic for ecologists, and ecological networks planning has become one of the major challenges for landscape planners. Identification of habitat patches as well as assessment of the effect of ecological networks is badly needed. Since little information on the effect of landscape heterogeneities on animal dispersal is available, simulation models are being developed. As dispersal pattern and success strongly depend on the spatial context, species' interactions with landscapes, species behaviour and species ability to disperse, these models must be able to simulate them explicitly. This research work therefore aims first at developing methods and models that allow realistic animal dispersal simulations in fragmented landscapes. Second it aims at evaluating the effect of landscape heterogeneities and animal behaviour on dispersal and on species persistence. Additionally, the ability of such a model to estimate gene flow is analysed. To carry on this research, the following fields have been explored: landscape ecology, metapopulation dynamic, animal behaviour, genetics, Geographical Information Systems, modelling approaches and programming. A method, based on properties provided by Geographical Information Systems software, is first proposed to generate ecological networks by simulating animal dispersal according to animal movement constraints induced by human infrastructures. The resulting maps provide a spatial identification of ecological networks, corridors and conflicting areas. This model has proved to be a useful and straightforward tool for landscape planning, even if this model, similar to other present-day models used in dispersal simulations, presents numerous technical and scientific limitations. To improve models for animal dispersal, a feature-oriented landscape model associated with an expert system has been developed. Its conceptualisation, its formalism, its data structure and its object-oriented design implementation provide a very accurate representation of landscape features and simulation of complex interactions between model entities (individuals and landscape features) based on simple rules. It allows the spatial identification of simulated processes. The ability of this model to incorporate states, relations and transition rules between entities makes it applicable to simulate large ranges of dispersal processes according to specific behaviour and/or landscape uses. To analyse the influence of landscape heterogeneities and species behaviour on dispersal and their incidence on metapopulation dynamics, the proposed feature-oriented model has been coupled with an animal model. The latter assigns different cognitive and dispersal abilities to individuals. Based on simulations according to three movement strategies (corresponding to the cognitive abilities of the simulated species), two measures evaluate the effect of cognitive abilities on dispersal: the colonisation probability between habitat patches and the ecological distance (due to landscape heterogeneities). These measures give an estimation of metapopulation structures (the habitat patches belonging to the metapopulation) and metapopulation dynamics induced by the landscape heterogeneities (for example, the habitat patches which release individuals). The complexity of dispersal processes, considering species behaviours and dispersal abilities, can therefore be reproduced and analysed at different levels. This application has shown the importance of animal behaviour on metapopulation dynamics and structure. Since tracking animals and providing sufficient data remain difficult, calibration and validation procedures of dispersal models are difficult to perform. One approach proposed here is to measure one of the consequences of dispersal: genetic differentiation among populations. Geographical distances are in general used to explain a part of the genetic differentiations. But as our fundamental assumption states that landscape heterogeneities and spatial arrangements of landscape features may strongly affect dispersal successes, genetic distance between populations must be better explained by the estimate of a model which considers these factors. We have tested this assumption with the greater white-toothed shrew (Crocidura russula). Scenarios considering various behaviours and dispersal abilities of C. russula have been performed. Relating measures of genetic, geographical and ecological distances (the latter emerge from scenario simulation results) highlights the model capability to reproduce dispersal of C. russula by explaining a greater part of the genetic differentiation than that explained by the geographical distances. This application has not only pointed out the ability of the model to quantify connectivity between habitat patches but also the difficulty to relate gene dispersal and individual dispersal.

EPFL2003