TNT equivalent

TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184gigajoules (1gigacalorie), which is the approximate energy released in the detonation of a metric ton (1,000 kilograms) of TNT. In other words, for each gram of TNT exploded, 4.184kilojoules (or 4,184 joules) of energy are released. This convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosive materials, of which TNT is a typical example, although other conventional explosives such as dynamite contain more energy. Kiloton and megaton The "kiloton (of TNT equivalent)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules (4.184e12J). The "megaton (of TNT equivalent)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules (4.184e15J). The kiloton and megaton of TNT equivalent have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of a

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Understanding the anomalous behavior of Vegard's law in Ce1-xMxO2 (M = Sn and Ti; 0 < x

Olga Safonova

The dependence of the lattice parameter on dopant concentration in Ce1-xMxO2 (M = Sn and Ti) solid solutions is not linear. A change towards a steeper slope is observed around x similar to 0.35, though the fluorite structure (space group Fm3m) is preserved up to x = 0.5. This phenomenon has not been observed for Ce1-xZrxO2 solid solutions showing a perfectly linear decrease of the lattice parameter up to x = 0.5. In order to understand this behavior, the oxidation state of the metal ions, the disorder in the oxygen substructure and the nature of metal-oxygen bonds have been analyzed by XPS, Sn-119 Mossbauer spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. It is observed that the first Sn-O coordination shell in Ce1-xSnxO2 is more compact and less flexible than that of Ce-O. The Sn coordination remains symmetric with eight equivalent, shorter Sn-O bonds, while Ce-O coordination gradually splits into a range of eight non-equivalent bonds compensating for the difference in the ionic radii of Ce4+ and Sn4+. Thus, a long-range effect of Sn doping is hardly extended throughout the lattice in Ce1-xSnxO2. In contrast, for Ce1-xZrxO2 solid solutions, both Ce and Zr have similar local coordination creating similar rearrangement of the oxygen substructure and showing a linear lattice parameter decrease up to 50% Zr substitution. We suggest that the localized effect of Sn substitution due to its higher electronegativity may be responsible for the deviation from Vegard's law in Ce1-xSnxO2 solid solutions.

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Ammonia represents one of the most promising potential solutions as energy vector and hydrogen carrier, having a higher potential to transport energy than hydrogen itself in a pressurized form. Furthermore, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) can directly be fed with ammonia, thus allowing for immediate electrical power and heat generation. This paper deals with the analysis of the dynamic behavior of commercial SOFCs when fueled with ammonia. Several measurements at different temperatures have been performed and performances are compared with hydrogen and a stoichiometrically equivalent mixture of H2 and N2 (3:1 M ratio). Higher temperature led to smaller drops in voltage for both fuels, thus providing higher efficiencies. Ammonia resulted slightly more performant (48% at 760 °C) than hydrogen (45% at 760 °C), in short stack tests. Moreover, different ammonia-to-air ratios have been investigated and the stack area-specific resistance has been studied in detail by comparing numerical modeling predictions and experimental values.

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