Master of Business Administration

Summary

A Master of Business Administration (MBA; also Master in Business Administration) is a postgraduate degree focused on business administration. The core courses in an MBA program cover various areas of business administration such as accounting, applied statistics, human resources, business communication, business ethics, business law, strategic management, business strategy, finance, managerial economics, management, entrepreneurship, marketing, supply-chain management, and operations management in a manner most relevant to management analysis and strategy. It originated in the United States in the early 20th century when the country industrialized and companies sought scientific management. Some programs also include elective courses and concentrations for further study in a particular area, for example, accounting, finance, marketing, and human resources, but an MBA is intended to be a generalized program. MBA programs in the United States typically require completing about forty

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Entrepreneurial Marketing

Marc Gruber

Entrepreneurship is one of the youngest disciplines in the area of business administration. Hence, there is a special need for literature that can be used in teaching and that can serve as a basis for research. This article reviews five textbooks and three research-oriented books on entrepreneurial marketing, which is regarded as one of the key areas of entrepreneurship. As the review shows, there is no textbook that covers all relevant aspects of entrepreneurial marketing in sufficient breadth and depth. Most books are dominated by contents from general marketing, despite the fact that emerging firms face some very specific challenges in their marketing activities. Our review of the research-oriented literature uncovers a need for more detailed studies that address distinct phenomena in entrepreneurial marketing. Thus, this new and vibrant field offers plenty of opportunities to generate important research findings.

2004

Tuberculosis (TB) is notoriously difficult to cure, requiring administration of multiple antibiotics for 6 mo or longer. Conventional anti-TB drugs inhibit biosynthetic processes involved in cell growth and division, such as DNA replication, RNA transcription, protein translation, and cell wall biogenesis. Although highly effective against bacteria cultured in vitro under optimal growth conditions, these antibiotics are less effective against bacteria grown in vivo in the tissues of a mammalian host. The factors that contribute to the antibiotic tolerance of bacteria grown in vivo are unknown, although altered metabolism and sluggish growth are hypothesized to play a role. To address this question, we identified mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis that impaired or enhanced persistence in mice treated with isoniazid (INH), a front-line anti-TB drug. Disruption of cydC, encoding a putative ATP-binding cassette transporter subunit, accelerated bacterial clearance in INH-treated mice without affecting growth or survival in untreated mice. Conversely, transposon insertions within the rv0096-rv0101 gene cluster attenuated bacterial growth and survival in untreated mice but paradoxically prevented INH-mediated killing of bacteria in treated mice. These contrasting phenotypes were dependent on the interaction of the bacteria with the tissue environment because both mutants responded normally to INH when grown in macrophages ex vivo or in axenic cultures in vitro. Our findings have important implications because persistence-impairing mutations would be missed by conventional genetic screens to identify candidate drug targets. Conversely, persistence-enhancing mutations would be missed by standard diagnostic methods, which are performed on bacteria grown in vitro, to detect drug resistance.

2010

Post-training administration of a synthetic peptide ligand of the neural cell adhesion molecule, C3d, attenuates long-term expression of contextual fear conditioning

Maria del Carmen Sandi Perez

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. We have recently developed a synthetic peptide, termed C3d, which, through the binding to the first, N-terminal immunoglobulin-like (Ig) module in the extracellular portion of NCAM, has been shown to promote neurite outgrowth and synapse formation in vitro, and to interfere with passive avoidance memory in rats in vivo. In this study, we investigated whether the i.c.v. administration of C3d, either 5.5 h after or 2 days before training, could be effective to modulate the strength at which emotional memory for aversive situations is established into a long-term memory. The effects of the peptide were evaluated in adult male Wistar rats trained in the contextual fear conditioning task. The results indicated that C3d significantly reduced the subsequent long-term retention of the conditioned fear response when administered 5.5 h post-training, as indicated by retention tests performed 2-3 and 7 days post-training. However, this treatment failed to influence conditioning for this task when injected 2 days pre-training. Additional experiments showed that C3d did not influence the emotional or locomotor behaviour of the animals, when tested in the open field task. Furthermore, hippocampal levels of microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), Synaptophysin and NCAM were found unchanged when evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in crude synaptosomal preparations 2 days after peptide i.c.v. injection. Therefore, post-training injection of this synthetic peptide was efficient to attenuate the strength at which memory for contextual fear conditioning was enduringly stored, whilst it did not affect the acquisition of new memories. In addition to further support the view that NCAM is critically involved in memory consolidation, the current findings suggest that the NCAM IgI module is a potential target for the development of therapeutic drugs capable to reduce the cognitive impact induced by exposure to intensive stress experiences.

2003

Post-training administration of a synthetic peptide ligand of the neural cell adhesion molecule, C3d, attenuates long-term expression of contextual fear conditioning

Maria del Carmen Sandi Perez

2003