European witchcraft

European witchcraft is a multifaceted historical and cultural phenomenon that unfolded over centuries, leaving a mark on the continent's social, religious, and legal landscapes. The roots of European witchcraft trace back to classical antiquity when concepts of magic and the supernatural were interwoven into societal beliefs. Ancient Rome, then a pagan society, had laws against harmful magic. During the Middle Ages, misogynist views of women led to the association of women and malevolent witchcraft, as accusations of heresy and devil worship grew more prevalent. By the early modern period, a full-blown witch-hunt had taken hold, fueled by factors such as religious tensions, societal anxieties, and economic upheaval. While common folk believed that magical healers (called 'cunning folk' or 'wise people') could undo bewitchment, once the persecutions began, many times cunning folk, healers, and other innocent women and men were also demonized as harmful witches, dangerous sorceresses or sorcerers in league with the Devil, capable of causing harm through black magic. One pivotal text that shaped the witch-hunt was the Malleus Maleficarum, a 1486 treatise on witchcraft that provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. The burgeoning influence of the Catholic Church led to a wave of witch trials across Europe. Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by neighbours and followed from social tensions. Accusations often targeted marginalized individuals, including women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. Although some magical healers were accused of witchcraft, they made up a minority of those accused. Women made accusations as often as men. The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people. This dark period of history reflects the confluence of superstition, fear, and authority, as well as the societal tendency to find scapegoats for complex problems.

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Related concepts (10)

Witch-cult hypothesis

The witch-cult hypothesis is a discredited theory that the witch trials of the Early Modern period were an attempt to suppress a pagan religion that had survived the Christianization of Europe. According to its proponents, accused witches were actually followers of this alleged religion. They argue that the supposed 'witch cult' revolved around worshiping a Horned God of fertility and the underworld, whose Christian persecutors identified with the Devil, and whose followers held nocturnal rites at the witches' Sabbath.

Werewolf

In folklore, a werewolf (), or occasionally lycanthrope ( lukánthrōpos) is an individual who can shape-shift into a wolf (or, especially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like creature), either purposely or after being placed under a curse or affliction (often a bite or the occasional scratch from another werewolf), with the transformations occurring on the night of a full moon. Early sources for belief in this ability or affliction, called lycanthropy, are Petronius (27–66) and Gervase of Tilbury (1150–1228).

Flying ointment

Flying ointment is a hallucinogenic ointment said to have been used by witches in the practice of European witchcraft from at least as far back as the Early Modern period, when detailed recipes for such preparations were first recorded and when their usage spread to colonial North America. The ointment is known by a wide variety of names, including witches' flying ointment, green ointment, magic salve, or lycanthropic ointment. In German it was Hexensalbe (witch salve) or Flugsalbe (flying salve).