European witchcraft

European witchcraft is a multifaceted historical and cultural phenomenon that unfolded over centuries, leaving a mark on the continent's social, religious, and legal landscapes. The roots of European witchcraft trace back to classical antiquity when concepts of magic and the supernatural were interwoven into societal beliefs. Ancient Rome, then a pagan society, had laws against harmful magic. During the Middle Ages, misogynist views of women led to the association of women and malevolent witchcraft, as accusations of heresy and devil worship grew more prevalent. By the early modern period, a full-blown witch-hunt had taken hold, fueled by factors such as religious tensions, societal anxieties, and economic upheaval. While common folk believed that magical healers (called 'cunning folk' or 'wise people') could undo bewitchment, once the persecutions began, many times cunning folk, healers, and other innocent women and men were also demonized as harmful witches, dangerous sorceresses or sorcerers in league with the Devil, capable of causing harm through black magic. One pivotal text that shaped the witch-hunt was the Malleus Maleficarum, a 1486 treatise on witchcraft that provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. The burgeoning influence of the Catholic Church led to a wave of witch trials across Europe. Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by neighbours and followed from social tensions. Accusations often targeted marginalized individuals, including women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. Although some magical healers were accused of witchcraft, they made up a minority of those accused. Women made accusations as often as men. The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people. This dark period of history reflects the confluence of superstition, fear, and authority, as well as the societal tendency to find scapegoats for complex problems.