Package cushioning

Package cushioning is used to protect items during shipment. Vibration and impact shock during shipment and loading/unloading are controlled by cushioning to reduce the chance of product damage. Cushioning is usually inside a shipping container such as a corrugated box. It is designed to absorb shock by crushing and deforming, and to dampen vibration, rather than transmitting the shock and vibration to the protected item. Depending on the specific situation, package cushioning is often between thick. Internal packaging materials are also used for functions other than cushioning, such as to immobilize the products in the box and lock them in place, or to fill a void. When designing packaging the choice of cushioning depends on many factors, including but not limited to: effective protection of product from shock and vibration resilience (whether it performs for multiple impacts) resistance to creep – cushion deformation under static load material costs labor costs and productivity effects of temperature, humidity, and air pressure on cushioning cleanliness of cushioning (dust, insects, etc.) effect on size of external shipping container environmental and recycling issues sensitivity of product to static electricity Loose fill Some cushion products are flowable and are packed loosely around the items in the box. The box is closed to tighten the pack. This includes expanded polystyrene foam pieces (foam peanuts), similar pieces made of starch-based foams, and common popcorn. The amount of loose fill material required and the transmitted shock levels vary with the specific type of material. Paper Paper can be manually or mechanically wadded up and used as a cushioning material. Heavier grades of paper provide more weight-bearing ability than old newspapers. Creped cellulose wadding is also available. Movers often wrap objects with several layers of kraft paper or embossed pulp before putting them into boxes. Corrugated fiberboard pads Multi-layer or cut-and-folded shapes of corrugated board can be used as cushions.

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Package cushioning

Packaging engineering

Packaging engineering, also package engineering, packaging technology and packaging science, is a broad topic ranging from design conceptualization to product placement. All steps along the manufacturing process, and more, must be taken into account in the design of the package for any given product. Package engineering is an interdisciplinary field integrating science, engineering, technology and management to protect and identify products for distribution, storage, sale, and use.

Vibration

Vibration () is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic, such as the motion of a pendulum, or random, such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road. Vibration can be desirable: for example, the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind instrument or harmonica, a mobile phone, or the cone of a loudspeaker. In many cases, however, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound.

Seismic risk analysis, at large scale and local scale, is fundamental support for mitigating the investment costs and recovery works, impacting society's economy. The presented article's main purpose is to present a mechanicalbased model to evaluate the fragility curves through nonlinear static analysis. The results achieved from statistical analysis allows defining a representative building stock for two height classes. Material properties for typical masonry typologies that characterise the unreinforced masonry building heritage for the specific area of investigation are assigned to the prototype buildings. The paper proposes a procedure for fragility function evaluation to reduce computation time and limit the results' loss of reliability. A technique based on macro-element formulation and threedimensional equivalent frame model is proposed to evaluate the assessed buildings' seismic response. The proposed model includes implementing the macro-element formulation in open-source software, Opensees, that allows higher versatility and the possibility to include in the analysis sources for better reliability and representation regarding the real building. Equivalent frame modelling allows an efficient way to represent the seismic response and a compromise between computation costs and high accuracy. Modelling technique validation is proposed by comparing results derived on specified studies concerning, ambient vibration and seismic response. A limited set of capacity curves is generated from the aleatory variation on the material properties. Then, the number of capacity curves is expanded by a correlation between the seismic response parameters. The increase in capacity curves aims to cover the variability on the structural capacity. Fragility curves are then derived from a stochastic selection of response spectra, by using GMPE allowing to estimate the probability distribution of each damage state, as a function of the reached displacement. Reliability of the mechanical fragility curves is proved by comparing recent studies, involving both empirical and mechanical based fragility functions. The assessment's feasibility is demonstrated by applying the procedure over most representative prototype building configurations for the Switzerland city of Basel.

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