Lecture
This lecture discusses the non-ideality of operational amplifiers (op-amps) and noise sources. It covers how the ideal op-amp Golden Rules deviate from reality, including implications for input and output impedance, voltage gain, common-mode voltage gain, and more. The lecture also explores noise sources in low-voltage measurements, such as Johnson noise, thermoelectric EMF, internal offsets, RF/EM interference, 1/f noise, line cycle interference, magnetic fields, and ground loops. Exercises focus on understanding op-amp non-idealities in junction resistance measurements, strategies for accurate voltage amplification, current source applications, and noise simulation. The instructor will address ways to mitigate these noise sources in the next lecture.