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While CMOS single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) technology has steadily advanced, improving noise, timing resolution, and sensitivity, spatial resolution has been increasing as well. The increase in the number of pixels has made a comprehensive analysis of nonuniformity and its effects meaningful, allowing a more accurate comparison of SPAD imagers with other high-end scientific imagers, such as electron multiplying charge-coupled device and scientific CMOS. A comprehensive nonuniformity analysis was conducted on a 512 x 128 pixel gated SPAD imager, where dark noise, afterpulsing, crosstalk, signal response, and shot noise were measured. This analysis has led to a variety of postprocessing algorithms to improve the linearity of the response as for example required by ground state depletion microscopy-based superresolution microscopy and other techniques. We derived a new correction formula for the count rate applicable to 1-b SPAD imagers, and we measured a significant improvement of photon detection efficiency using microlenses. These techniques were used to validate the suitability of the imager in fluorescence microscopy examples.
Sabine Süsstrunk, Radhakrishna Achanta, Mahmut Sami Arpa, Martin Nicolas Everaert, Athanasios Fitsios
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