Full-Area Passivating Contacts with High and Low Thermal Budgets: Solutions for High Efficiency c-Si Solar Cells

Today more than 90% of the global PV market is covered by c-Si solar cells which are limited by recombination losses at the metal-semiconductor interface. This recombination path can be avoided by separating the metal from the c-Si wafer by introducing a buffer layer that passivates electronically the wafer surface while still allowing the flow of one type of carrier. Such structures are called carrier selective passivating contacts. In the scope of this thesis, carrier selective passivating contacts with low and high thermal budgets are investigated with the purpose of achieving a good understanding of the junction formation, the working principle, limiting factors, and integration requirements. Silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells are studied as representatives for solar cells processed with low thermal budget. Solar cells with interfacial oxide contacts are investigated as the cell concept for high thermal budgets. To be industrially relevant, contact formation of the latter is studied with p-type wafers. The carrier selective passivating contacts based on microcrystalline silicon (mc-Si:H) are studied for SHJ solar cells with low thermal budget. It is demonstrated that mc-Si:H layers improve the optical and electrical performance of the SHJ solar cells compared to cells with purely amorphous contacts. However, as the layer crystallinity increases with thickness, a trade¿off between short circuit current density and fill factor is encountered. By combining a MoOx front hole-contact and a mc-Si:H(n) rear electron-contact, this trade¿off is avoided. Applying an electrodeposited copper front metallization, a short circuit current density of 38.9 mA/cm2 and a fill factor of to 80% are obtained leading to an efficiency of 22.5%. The passivating hole contacts with high thermal budget are developed using a chemically grown oxide (SiOx) and boron doped silicon-carbide which is deposited under Si-rich conditions by plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition. It is observed that introducing an undoped Si inter¿layer between SiOx and SiCx(p) is necessary to prevent chemical reaction between carbon atoms in the SiCx(p) and the adjacent SiOx, and consequently to obtain wellpassivated SiOx/c-Si interface. With this contact structure, an implied open circuit voltage value of 718 mV and a specific contact resistivity value of 17m­ cm2 are attained. The contact structure is tested at device level by realizing proof-of-concept hybrid solar cells that feature a high thermal budget rear hole-contact and a low thermal budget SHJ front electron-contact. With this concept, the fill factor of 81.8% is attained. In an effort to improve the hole-contact property further, in-situ incorporation of fluorine into the boron-doped hole-contact is explored. It is observed that in the as-deposited state, fluorine is evenly distributed within the contact layer of SiCx:F(p). Upon annealing, fluorine diffuses toward the c-Si wafer and accumulates at the interface where it reduces the defect states. With this contact structure, implied open circuit voltage values up to 735mV are achieved. The potential of the fluorinated hole-contact is investigated at device level by realizing both sides-contacted co-processed solar. For this purpose in-situ phosphorous doped SiCx(n) layers were developed as a front contact. Planar, both sides-contacted p-type solar cells attain an impressive fill factor value of 84% and an open circuit voltage of 727 mV.