Etude expérimentale des couplages viscoélasticité-croissance des fissures dans les bétons de ciment

Viscoelasticity and crack growth govern the long-term deformability of concrete and thus its service behaviour and its durability. For low load levels, viscoelasticity behaves quasilinearly and crack growth is inactive. On the other hand, for high load levels, cracks grow and interact with viscoelasticity. Numerous authors have long demonstrated the influence of microcracking on creep qualitatively. Moreover, rate effects on the fracture behaviour of concrete are clear for low and high loading rates. Nevertheless, the mechanisms involved in these effects are not yet clearly determined. Cohesive crack approaches extended to time dependent parameters, give some elements of explanation, although without providing a general tool capable of explaining all the phenomena. The dissipative nature of crack growth and viscoelasticity naturally encourages one to model their couplings by means of an energybased approach to fracture. This is the meaning of the continuum thermodynamics of dissipative multicracked granular bodies developed by Huet (1997). This theoretical formalism puts the emphasis on the effect of viscoelasticity on the driving (reactive) part of the propagation criteria (energy release rate). The aim of this experimental research was to investigate coupling effects between viscoelasticity and crack growth in concrete. With this aim in view, 4 different types of fracture test have been performed on the same material (concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 8 mm), with a constant specimen geometry (rectangular wedge splitting specimens 20 by 20 by 10 cm). The first type of test consisted of performing a series of successive relaxations, at various increasing load levels, before, on and after the peak force, following the envelope of failure. Special attention was devoted to the influence of the control parameter ("active": with respect to displacements measured on the specimen, or "passive": crosshead displacement) and loading history. The results showed a progressive deviation from the linear viscoelastic behaviour starting from a load level of approximately 50 % of the peak force, before the peak. This deviation was significantly higher with crosshead control ("passive"). It depended on the loading history. After the peak, in "active" displacement control, relative relaxations tended to be similar whatever the load level. The displacement parameters (other than control) measured on the specimen or crosshead during relaxation, showed an evolution dependent on the control parameter. This effect was significant at the beginning of the relaxation and tended to disappear later. Furthermore, acoustic emissions could be detected at the beginning and during some relaxations, for high load levels (nearby peak force and after). The second type of test consisted of one or more successive creep levels up to eventual failure under sustained force. In certain cases, during creep levels leading to fracture, alternating secondary and tertiary creep with multiple concavity changes correlated with measured acoustic emissions could be observed. The tertiary creep leading to fracture developed over several minutes. Unstable sudden crack propagation was only seen at the end of the tertiary creep levels, accompanied by a sudden and very fast increase of the number of acoustic emissions. Moreover, during tertiary creep, an increase of the crack length measured on the specimen's surface by means of a conductive crack graphite gauge could be observed, correlated with the evolution of the creep displacements. The third type of test was performed under constant displacement speed (displacement measured on the specimen in the axis of the splitting force) with a range of speeds from 5 x 10-4 to 5 x 10-1 mm/minute. The results show a clear influence of the displacement speed on the response in terms of force-displacement curve, in the vicinity of the peak. The maximum force decreases with the displacement speed. On the other hand, the displacement at peak force was not significantly influenced by the displacement speed. Surface crack length measurements by means of a conductive graphite gauge enabled the determination of the surface crack speed as a function of the imposed displacement. The obtained surface crack speed depended quasi linearly on the imposed displacement speed. The fourth type of test, complementary to the former ones, was especially for the study of the evolution of internal micromechanical parameters during crack growth. Two wedge splitting specimens were equipped internally, near to the potential crack path with optical strain gauges (Bragg gratings). The internal strain measurements, revealed two zones of very different behaviour, with similar tends for the two specimens. Optical strain gauges close to the fracture plane (less than 5 mm from gauge axis) measured high strains (around 1000 με) significantly greater than the ultimate tensile strain of normal concrete (0.1‰ or 100 με) and mostly irreversible. At the contrary, optical strain gauges farther from the fracture plane (over 10 to 15 mm) measured strains that were always smaller than 100 με , and mostly reversible. Finally, two types of computer simulation (homogeneous materials) were performed in order to complement the interpretation of experimental results. A linear viscoelastic calculation, for a constant crack pattern, was used to illustrate quantitatively the progressive deviation from linearity observed in the experimental successive relaxations. A non-linear calculation of the propagation of a discrete crack with softening behaviour, in a linear elastic material, accurately predicted some of the strains measured with optical strain gauges during crack propagation. The experimental results demonstrated many indications of crack growth activity during creep as well as relaxation levels. These measurements confirm the significant contribution of propagation and coalescence of microcracks to the non-linear viscoelastic response of concrete. Indications of microcrack growth during relaxation can be explained by unstable propagation phenomena triggered by the small size of the microcracks. These phenomena could be amplified by viscoelastic effects of the redistribution of internal stresses in the heterogeneous structure of concrete. All the work performed clearly shows the need to complement macroscopic measurements such as the reaction force of a specimen or external displacements, with the measurement of micromechanical parameters in order to distinguish the contributions of the different active phenomena and of their coupling.

Time-Dependent Response of Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) under Low to High Tensile Stresses

Agnieszka Ewa Switek

Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concretes (UHPFRC) are characterised by high mechanical performance, extremely low permeability and tensile strain hardening. For structural applications, in composite structures they are very well adapted for reinforcement and protection of existing concrete members. Cast in-situ, they undergo under restraint development of tensile eigenstresses at early age, which can lead in some specific cases of applications to localised macrocracking of a new layer and loss of protective function. On the other hand their tensile viscoelastic potential helps mitigate these stresses. The objective of this study was to investigate the tensile viscoelastic properties of UHPFRC at early ages and long-term in creep and relaxation tests. A large experimental campaign with tensile creep and relaxation tests was performed, with load levels ranging from 30 to 90% of the tensile strength, including creep and relaxation tests during the strain hardening phase, at two different loading ages of 3 and 7 days. Three main testing setups were used: TSTM (Temperature Stress Testing Machine), creep rigs and closed-loop servo-hydraulic testing machine with additional Acoustic Emission detection. The influence of early age evolution in mechanical response and underlying mechanisms governing this response were discussed. Linear viscoelastic models were used to analyse and to highlight on the basis of the experimental results the non-linear behavior depending on solicitation level and loading sequence. The non-linear threshold for viscoelastic response was estimated for the material loaded at 3 and 7 days. The early age mechanical response at 3 days was proportional to the load level in the instantaneous part for three stress levels tested 30, 60 and 90% of the tensile strength, and showed non-linear creep from 60% on. It was observed that for a very low stress level of 13% the creep deformation was decreasing. Relaxation tests with compensation of simultaneously monitored shrinkage deformation were performed, and showed a viscoelastic potential similar to the one observed for creep for the low load level of 30%. Incremental creep and relaxation tests were successfully performed for 3 days age specimens. For higher stress levels, the viscoelastic response from creep tests was more pronounced than in relaxation tests, which was highlighted by analysis with linear viscoelastic models. The creep response at 7 days showed that the threshold for non-linear viscoelasticity is close to 9 MPa (81% of the tensile strength) load level. The Acoustic Emission non-destructive testing method was used to get insight on the physical mechanisms involved in viscoelastic deformations. A strong correlation between AE number of events and the deformation was found, also the amplitude and energy of AE events was found to be of the same order during the instantaneous and delayed deformations. UHPFRC loaded at 7 days age in incremental test showed linear behavior until very high stress level corresponding to the hardening domain. The non-linear and tertiary creep was obtained during the last loading step, for 12 and 11 MPa respectively, which occurred in the hardening domain. The Acoustic Emission monitoring confirmed very close correlation between non-linear creep and AE cumulative number of events induced by microcracking. In order to precisely detect non-linear phenomena in incremental test, analysis with linear viscoelastic models was performed. Comparison between creep and relaxation test results showed that non-linear viscoelastic phenomena were more actively involved in creep tests. The outcomes of this research, bridging the material science and structural engineering, provide useful data to foster applications in new and existing structures, making the best use of the tensile viscoelastic potential of UHPFRC.

EPFL2011

Thermo mechanical effects in Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concretes (UHPFRC) at early age

Eugen Brühwiler, Emmanuel Denarié, Aicha Kamen, Hamid Sadouki

The extremely low permeability of Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concretes (UHPFRC)associated to their outstanding mechanical properties make them especially suitable to locally "harden" reinforced concrete structures in critical zones subjected to an aggressive environment and to significant mechanical stresses. Composite UHPFRC-concrete structures promise a long-term durability which helps avoid multiple interventions on structures during their service life. Temperature Stress Testing Machines (TSTM) are very well suited to "experimentally simulate" the conditions encountered in composite structures in a new layer, at early age, subjected to restrained shrinkage under complex environmental conditions. They can also be used to determine intrinsic properties such as free shrinkage and creep response under well defined conditions of restraint and temperature. A new TSTM testing setup has been used to characterize the response of two types of strain hardening UHPFRC, with different binders (CEM I and CEM III), under various thermo mechanical conditions. Isotherm tests as well as test under realistic temperature conditions have been performed. Current numerical models have been applied to simulate the tests and the range of their applicability has been determined for temperatures between 10 and 30 °C. Moreover, the significant influence of non linearity in the creep response of UHPFRC, at early age, under moderate to high tensile load levels has been demonstrated. The test results showed a significant creep potential due to the high volume of paste. This beneficial effect was reflected by the linearly increasing -relationship between tensile creep and shrinkage. As expected, UHPFRC tensile creep behaviour was also sensitive to the loading level. Above 35 % of the tensile strength at the loading age, the material exhibited a non linear behaviour. A Maxwell chain model was applied to predict the early age UHPFRC tensile creep and confirmed the observed non-linear response.

2008

Experiments-based multi-scale modeling of the alkali-silica reaction in concrete

Mauro Corrado, Emil Gallyamov, Jean-François Molinari, Roozbeh Rezakhani

In this study, we investigate the mechanical behavior of large concrete structures affected by the alkali-silica reaction. Particularly, concrete dams are explored. Their permanent contact with water, and thus increased humidity, promotes the ASR. Seasonal variation of the environmental temperature causes different levels of concrete damage in “cold” and “warm” zones. In order to study the behavior of such structures, a thermo-mechanical multi-scale numerical model is developed. It is based on the algorithm proposed by CubaRamos. Simulations are performed at the macro- and meso-scales, both of which are handled by the finiteelement method. An elastic thermo-mechanical simulation, performed at the macro-scale, results in a temperature and displacement field. This information at every integration point of the macro-scale is communicated to a corresponding representative volume element (RVE) at the meso-scale. The temperature value is used to determine the gel expansion rate for the following time step. Advancement of the ASR at the level of RVEs leads to gel expansion, deformation of the matrix, and growth of cracks. Given the solution of an RVE problem, homogenized material properties are extracted and communicated to the corresponding integration point of the macro-structure. In the next loading step, the latter behaves according to local states of material throughout a structure.Concrete damaging process is locally driven by gel volume increase, which in its turn depends on therate of alkali-silica reaction. An equation used to relate the ambient temperature and the amount of available reactants to the gel strain rate is inspired by the Arrhenius law. Parameters of this equation are calibrated based on the experiments by Gautam & Panesar. Cracks in concrete are handled by a continuum damage model. Convergence of the static solution in the presence of multiple cracks is achieved by modification of the sequential linear analysis proposed by Rots and Invernizzi. The cement paste at the meso-scale behaves viscoelastically, which causes relaxation of stresses and reduction in the level of damage. For this purpose, an algorithm coupling the SLA with the general viscoelastic model is developed.

2019