Ion sourceAn ion source is a device that creates atomic and molecular ions. Ion sources are used to form ions for mass spectrometers, optical emission spectrometers, particle accelerators, ion implanters and ion engines. Electron ionization Electron ionization is widely used in mass spectrometry, particularly for organic molecules. The gas phase reaction producing electron ionization is M{} + e^- -> M^{+\bullet}{} + 2e^- where M is the atom or molecule being ionized, e^- is the electron, and M^{+\bullet} is the resulting ion.
Socialist calculation debateThe socialist calculation debate, sometimes known as the economic calculation debate, was a discourse on the subject of how a socialist economy would perform economic calculation given the absence of the law of value, money, financial prices for capital goods and private ownership of the means of production. More specifically, the debate was centered on the application of economic planning for the allocation of the means of production as a substitute for capital markets and whether or not such an arrangement would be superior to capitalism in terms of efficiency and productivity.
Loi de BraggEn physique, la loi de Bragg est une loi qui interprète le processus de la diffraction des radiations sur un cristal. Elle fut découverte par W.H. et W.L. Bragg vers 1912. Lorsque l'on bombarde un cristal avec un rayonnement dont la longueur d'onde est du même ordre de grandeur que la distance inter-atomique, il se produit un phénomène de diffraction. Les conditions de diffraction donnent les directions dans lesquelles on observe de l'intensité diffractée par le cristal.
Ion beamAn ion beam is a type of charged particle beam consisting of ions. Ion beams have many uses in electronics manufacturing (principally ion implantation) and other industries. A variety of ion beam sources exists, some derived from the mercury vapor thrusters developed by NASA in the 1960s. The most common ion beams are of singly-charged ions. Ion current density is typically measured in mA/cm^2, and ion energy in eV.
Déclaration des droits (États-Unis)La Déclaration des droits (United States Bill of Rights) est l'ensemble constitué des dix premiers amendements à la Constitution américaine. Elle limite les pouvoirs du gouvernement fédéral et garantit les libertés de presse, de parole, de religion, de réunion, le droit de porter des armes, et le droit de propriété. Adoptée par la Chambre des représentants le et le Congrès le suivant, elle est ratifiée progressivement par les États fédérés, et prend effet le , date de la ratification par la Virginie.
Economic calculation problemThe economic calculation problem (sometimes abbreviated ECP) is a criticism of using economic planning as a substitute for market-based allocation of the factors of production. It was first proposed by Ludwig von Mises in his 1920 article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" and later expanded upon by Friedrich Hayek. In his first article, Mises described the nature of the price system under capitalism and described how individual subjective values (while criticizing other theories of value) are translated into the objective information necessary for rational allocation of resources in society.
