Structure of a model TiO2 photocatalytic interface

The interaction of water with TiO2 is crucial to many of its practical applications, including photocatalytic water splitting. Following the first demonstration of this phenomenon 40 years ago there have been numerous studies of the rutile single-crystal TiO2(110) interface with water. This has provided an atomic-level understanding of the water-TiO2 interaction. However, nearly all of the previous studies of water/TiO2 interfaces involve water in the vapour phase. Here, we explore the interfacial structure between liquid water and a rutile TiO2(110) surface pre-characterized at the atomic level. Scanning tunnelling microscopy and surface X-ray diffraction are used to determine the structure, which is comprised of an ordered array of hydroxyl molecules with molecular water in the second layer. Static and dynamic density functional theory calculations suggest that a possible mechanism for formation of the hydroxyl overlayer involves the mixed adsorption of O-2 and H2O on a partially defected surface. The quantitative structural properties derived here provide a basis with which to explore the atomistic properties and hence mechanisms involved in TiO2 photocatalysis.

Growth and characterization of specific self-assembled supramolecular architectures at crystal surfaces

Marta Canas Ventura

In the framework of this thesis self-assembled supramolecular architectures of several molecular species on crystal metal surfaces are characterized. These investigations combine results obtained by means of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS), X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), and Near-Edge X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure Spectroscopy (NEXAFS). The interest in controlling the formation of specific arrangements of supramolecular ensembles at surfaces is motivated to a great extent by the prospect to design molecular devices and nanomaterials with customized properties. The goal is a "spontaneous" creation of targeted, well-ordered molecular architectures, which shall be achieved by taking advantage of the molecule's propensity to self-assemble. Control means, in this context, predictability. This term address the accuracy of the prediction of the structures resulting from molecular self-assembly for systems exhibiting different characteristics. Here, system stands for a particular combination of a single-crystal surface and adsorbed molecular species. In a first part, the focus is given to the impact of a Pd(111) surface exhibiting high chemical activity. Due to surface induced deprotonation two resulting chemical states are found for the adsorbed terephthalic acid species. Deprotonation of the carboxyl moieties is observed to affect the topology of the molecular assemblies even though hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) are responsible for the stabilization of assemblies of both, intact and deprotonated molecular species. Therefore, the selective fabrication of a single specific molecular structure becomes a challenge when the surface is prone to induce chemical reactions. Secondly, a molecular species exhibiting conformational flexibility is studied on a largely inert Au(111) surface. It is observed that the characteristic conformational flexibility is also active on the surface, and the molecule is found to adopt different conformations depending on the locally most favorable bonding motif. In particular, phenyl groups may undergo a rotation such that one-dimensional chains can be stabilized by means of intermolecular H-bonds. This phenomenon is very interesting from an adsorbate-substrate interaction point of view, but it limits the predictability of supramolecular structures formed upon self-assembly. In a third step, a comparative study of the self-assembly of three closely related molecular species highlights the impact of concurrent competing intermolecular interactions. Molecules exhibiting an increasing number of possible interaction channels are found to assemble into an increasing number of distinct supramolecular architectures. The most flexible molecular species allowing for different hydrogen-bonding patterns as well as dipolar coupling self-assembles into various structurally complex architectures. Structural predictability, however, is low since the formation of one or the other assembly appears to depend on small variations in sample preparation conditions and on poorly controllable local surface properties. Finally, a system where the resulting structures fully agree with predictions evidences the possibility to control the formation of targeted specific supramolecular architectures. The formation of well ordered bimolecular ribbons and wires over extended length scales is accomplished by the rational choice of both, complementary building blocks for the selective formation of three-fold H-bonds and a nanostructured surface to guide the molecular self-assembly. Furthermore, the impact of H-bond formation on the electronic structure of self-assembled molecular building blocks is probed by STS measurements. The experimental data reveal shifts in the electronic levels depending on the H-bond configuration and on the local characteristics of the underlying surface. In order to improve the precision of such a study, single molecules, homo- and heteromolecular dimers as well as trimers are successfully isolated and assembled by molecular manipulation with the STM tip. Further STS studies on such artificially assembled structures are suggested.

EPFL2008

Metal Clusters on Surfaces

Michael Hugentobler

The morphology, stability and reactivity of nanometre-sized particles (Au, Pt) is investigated on three different supports. Gold nanoparticles with a diameter comprised between 4 and 6nm are stabilized in nanosized pits of well defined depth in highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG). These pits are produced by creation of artificial defects, followed by etching under a controlled oxygen atmosphere. At low Au coverage, clusters are found on the edges of the hexagonal pits maximizing the contact to dangling bonds on graphite multisteps. Larger coverage results in Au beads of well defined shape and with a constant bead density per unit length. Most remarkable is the stability of these nanostructures under ambient conditions. Temperatures as high as 650 K do not alter the morphology of the gold clusters. Above 700 K, the gold clusters catalyze the etching of graphite layers when heated under atmospheric conditions. The depth of the etching channel is defined by the depth of the pit and the channel width can be controlled by the cluster size. Hydrogen, oxygen and water are dissociated on the Au clusters at low temperatures (> 400 K). CO and CO2 is produced above 700 K which confirms the etching of the multilayer graphene sheets. The so-called water-gas shift reaction has been observed where oxygen and water dissociate on the Au clusters at low temperatures. Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) measurements on the Pt=YSZ system have been performed and the desorption peaks of CO and O2 have been evidenced. Carbon monoxide desorbs from the surface at a temperature of 535 K and oxygen at 705 K, in good agreement with values reported in literature. Catalytic measurements have confirmed the known strong catalytic activity of Pt. The CO oxidation takes place at temperatures between 450 K and 700 K. The adsorption and desorption temperature of the two educts have been confirmed during the catalysis measurements. Size-selected Aun clusters (n = 5, 7) are deposited from the gas phase at room temperature with well-controlled kinetic energy on rutile TiO2 . Two different surface reconstructions have been used as support: TiO2(110) – (1 × 1) and TiO2(110) – (1 × 2). Systematic studies of morphology, stability and adsorption sites have been performed using scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM). The mean size of the clusters is maintained during deposition at a kinetic energy of 7.1eV per atom, indicating that there is no fragmentation. Au clusters are not stable neither on the TiO2(110) – (1 × 1) nor on the TiO2(110) – (1 × 2) reconstruction during annealing of the substrate to 800 K. A progressive transition into a pronounced 3-d formation is observed. The size distribution of the particles is small and the growth mode (Ostwald ripening) independent of the surface reconstruction. The higher corrugation of the TiO2(110) – (1 × 2) reconstruction results in a pronounced stabilization of the clusters on terraces, in contrast to the TiO2(110) – (1 × 1) reconstruction where 90% of the clusters are found on step edges at elevated temperatures. The catalytic activity of the Au clusters sets in during the 2d - 3d transition. These measurements have to be confirmed and a full understanding of the process should be found.

EPFL2010

Magnetism and Atomic Scale Structure of Bimetallic Nanostructures at Surfaces

Sergio Vlaic

his thesis reports on the magnetic properties of bi- and tri-metallic nanostructures at surfaces. The main goal is to build the smallest nanostructure ferromagnetic at room temperature and the assembly of those structures in high density arrays. To this purpose we have developed an approach consisting in a fine engineering of the nanostructure chemical structure at the atomic level. We grow core-shell nanostructures with atomically sharp interfaces between the different constituents and we investigate the effects produced by these interfaces as a function of their chemistry and structure. This approach is then used to grow organized arrays of bimetallic nanostructures that represent model systems for next generation high density magnetic storage media. The magnetic properties of the different experimental systems were investigated by magneto-optical Kerr effect (MOKE) and they were correlated to the morphology obtained by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The first part focuses on the understanding of the effects of atomically sharp interfaces among several elements. Two dimensional cobalt nanostructures have been grown on Pt(111) single crystal surface and subsequently their edges have been decorated by Fe, Pt or Pd. This one-dimensional decoration produces element dependent variations of the magnetic anisotropy energy with strong enhancement for Fe decoration and reduction for Pt and Pd. Furthermore we observe a crystallographic direction dependence on the effect of Pt and Pd decoration since Co/Pt or Co/Pd staking with {111}-orientation strongly enhances the magnetic hardness of the nanostructures. The effect of atomically sharp Co/Fe one-dimensional interface has been compared with direct alloying of the two elements finding the first one to give the highest effect for shell thicknesses smaller than 5 atoms. With the help of fully relativistic ab-initio we were able to reproduce the experimental results and unravel their pure electronic origin. The electronic hybridizations at the interface between the elements gives rise to "hot spots" in the electronic band structure responsible of a strong variation of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy resulting in the enhanced magnetic hardness. By growing Co-core Fe-shell Pd-capped nanostructures we were able to enhance the magnetization thermal stability of nanostructures by almost a factor of 3 with respect single-metal nanostructures of the same size. In the second part of this thesis, the first attempt of growing organized array of bimetallic nanostructures is presented. Taking advantage of the well-known self organized growth of Co nanodots on Au(111)-vicinal surfaces, we were able to grow Co-core Fe-shell nanodots on Au(11,12,12) single crystal. The thermal stability enhancement produced by the atomically sharp Co/Fe interface is higher than the direct alloying of the two elements as in the previous case. We argue that with this method, combined with three-dimensional growth of nanostructures arrays, it will be possible to produce multimetallic nanodots composed by ≈ 3000 atoms with magnetization thermal stability suitable for magnetic storage media. In the last part another model system for magnetic nanostructure superlattices is presented. Fe nanostructures have been grown on the Pd-seeded and unseeded alumina thin film formed by oxidation of a Ni3Al(111) single crystal surface at high temperature. We found that the sample stoichiometry near the surface evolves with the preparation cycles. This leads to the formation of a Ni-rich region, close to the alumina surface, ferromagnetic up to 250 K. By means of X-ray magnetic circular dichroism measurements we were able to estimate the amount of Ni in excess. Fe clusters deposited on the alumina surface are magnetically coupled to the Ni-rich region independently on the presence of Pd. Nevertheless, the system behavior cannot be explained by a simple ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic coupling. We argue that the Fe nanostructures are coupled to the substrate by an interlayer exchange coupling across the alumina thin film. The coupling constant is expected to change sign depending on the distance between the Fe clusters and the Ni-rich region resulting in a peculiar magnetic behavior of the system.

EPFL2013