Cryo-AFM development for high resolution DNA imaging and spectroscopy

The thesis presents the development of a custom made atomic force microscope (AFM) conceived to image biological molecules at low temperatures in ultrahigh vacuum conditions, and its application to DNA single molecule studies. Starting from a first prototype working in contact mode, our aim was to implement non-contact AFM in order to reduce possible sample damaging due to strong tip interactions. The first chapter of the thesis discusses the technical solutions developed to improve the previous system. A complete setup for in situ exchange of samples and tips was designed and implemented. This permits a continuous operation of the microscope under the experimental conditions of UHV. Thermal instabilities and temperature differences between the tip and the sample were solved with the design of a movable shield to avoid heating by thermal radiation. The introduction of a new high voltage signal generator with variable frequency and the development of a user-friendly LabVIEW interface to communicate with this device notably improved the piezomotors driving. These piezomotors perform the micro-positioning of all the microscope parts and are driven through this interface. Finally, the previous tip-holder design was modified to incorporate a piezo actuator behind the cantilever, which provides the necessary excitation for the implementation of dynamic AFM modes. The installation of a Phase Lock Loop (PLL) circuit to lock the cantilever frequency and the replacement of old feedback electronics for a digital SPM Controller, with advanced options of frequency-shift feedback, was another requirement for the correct implementation of non-contact AFM. The second chapter deals with DNA sample preparation for high resolution imaging by AFM. Based on our studies, the advantages and drawbacks of the most commonly used techniques for DNA adsorption are discussed in detail. Our measurements in contact mode demonstrate the convenience of using hydrophobic substrates for high resolution DNA imaging. At hydrophilic surfaces, like mica, the presence of a thin water layer could be responsible of strong adhesion forces between the cantilever and the sample. In order to overcome this limitation we tested HOPG as hydrophobic substrate. HOPG, chemically modified with amphiphilic compounds, allowed us to deposit DNA without molecular damage or stress. The HOPG surface treatment was significantly improved. New protocols were developed to control the formation of dodecylamine disordered monolayers or lamella structures on the substrate. The lamella formation induces a subsequent self assembly of DNA single molecules. In the last chapter we discuss our results on DNA imaging obtained with the different operation modes implemented in our microscope: contact mode, tapping mode and frequency modulation (non-contact) AFM. We conclude that the last one provides higher signal stability and the necessary sensitivity to observe DNA details at a single-molecule level. We also present a study of frequency shift versus distance dependence (force spectroscopy experiments) performed in DNA samples. We discuss for the first time a plausible explanation to the origin of the atomic force contrast between the substrate and the DNA molecules. Force spectroscopy measurements performed along DNA molecules reveal two distinguishable types of interaction. This result suggests that the chemical composition of the minor-major groove and/or of the sugar-phosphate backbone along the molecule can be detected, opening numerous possibilities for further studies and applications of this technique.

FM-AFM constant height imaging and force curves: high resolution study of DNA-tip interactions

Livan Bladimir Alonso Sarduy, Andrea Cerreta, Giovanni Dietler, Dusan Vobornik

Interaction of the atomic force microscopy (AFM) tip with the sample can be invasive for soft samples. Frequency Modulation (FM) AFM is gentler because it allows scanning in the non-contact regime where only attractive forces exist between the tip and the sample, and there is no sample compression. Recently, FM-AFM was used to resolve the atomic structure of single molecules of pentacene and of carbon nanotubes. We are testing similar FM-AFM-based approaches to study biological samples. We present FM-AFM experiments on dsDNA deposited on 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane modified mica in ultra high vacuum. With flexible samples such as DNA, the substrate flatness is a sub-molecular resolution limiting factor. Non-contact topographic images of DNA show variations that have the periodicity of the right handed helix of B-form DNA - this is an unexpected result as dehydrated DNA is thought to assume the A-form structure. Frequency shift maps at constant height allow working in the non-monotonic frequency shift range, show a rich contrast that changes significantly with the tip-sample separation, and show 0.2 to 0.4 nm size details on DNA. Frequency shift versus distance curves acquired on DNA molecules and converted in force curves show that for small molecules (height

Wiley-Blackwell2012

Statistical Study of the Unfolding of Multimodular Proteins and their Energy Landscape by Atomic Force Microscopy

Fabrizio Benedetti

The aim of the present thesis is to investigate several aspects of: the proteins mechanics, interprotein interactions and to study also new techniques, theoretical and technical, to obtain and analyze the force spectroscopy experiments. The first section is dedicated to the statistical properties of the unfolding forces in a chain of homomeric multimodular proteins. The basic idea of this kind of statistic is to divide the peaks observed in a force extension curve in separate groups and then analyze these groups considering their position in the force curves. In fact in a multimodular homomeric protein the unfolding force is related to the number of not yet unfolded modules (we call it "N"). Such effect yields to a linear dependence of the most probable unfolding force of a peak on ln(N). We demonstrate how such dependence can be used to extract the kinetic parameters and how, ignoring it, could lead to significant errors. Following this topic we continue with non kinetic methods that, using the resampling from the rupture forces of any peak, could reconstruct the rupture forces for all the other peaks in a chain. Then a discussion about the Monte Carlo simulation for protein pulling is present. In fact a theoretical framework for such methodology has to be introduced to understand the various simulations done. In this chapter we also introduce a methodology to study the ligand receptor interactions when we directly functionalize the AFM tip and the substrate. In fact, in many of our experiments, we see a "cloud of points" in the force vs loading rate graph. We have modeled a system composed by "N" parallel springs, and studying the distribution of forces obtained in the force vs loading rate graph we have establish a procedure to restore the kinetic parameters used. Such procedure has then been used to discuss real experiments similar to biotin-avidin interaction. In the following chapter we discuss a first order approximation of the Bell-Evans model where a more explicit form of the potential is considered. In particular the dependence of the curvature of the potential on the applied force at the minimum and at the metastable state is considered. In the well known Bell-Evans model the prefactors of the transition rate are fixed at any force, however this is not what happen in nature, where the prefactors (that are the second local derivative of the interacting energy with respect to the reaction coordinate in its minimum and maximum) depend on the force applied. The results obtained with the force spectroscopy of the Laminin-binding-protein are discussed, in particular this protein showed a phase transition when the pH was changed. The behavior of this protein changes, from a normal WLC behavior to a plateau behavior. The analysis of the force spectroscopy curves shows a distribution of length where the maximum of the first prominent peak correspond to the full length of the protein. However, length that could be associated with dimers and trymers are also present in this distribution. Later a new approach to study the lock and key mechanism, using "handles" with a specific force extension pattern, is introduced. In particular handles of (I27)3 and (I27–SNase)3 were biochemically attached to: strept-actin molecules, biotin molecules, RNase and Angiogenin. The main idea is to have a system composed by "handle-(molecule A)-(molecule B)-handle" where the handles are covalently attached to the respective molecules and the two molecules "A and B" are attached by secondary bonds. This approach allows a better recognition of the protein-protein interaction enabling us to filter out spurious events. Doing a statistic on the rupture forces and comparing this with the statistic of the detachments of the system of the bare handles, we are able to extract the information of the interaction between the molecule A and B. The two last chapters are of more preliminary character that the previous part of the thesis. A section is dedicated to the estimation of effective mass and viscous drag of the cantilevers studied by autocorrelation and noise power spectrum. Usually the noise power spectrum method is the most used, however the autocorrelation should give approximately the same information. The parameters obtained are important in high frequency modulation techniques. In fact, they are needed to interpret the results. The results of these two methods show a good agreement in the estimation of the mass and the viscous drag of the various cantilever used. Afterwards a chapter is dedicated to the discussion of the force spectroscopy experiments using a low frequency modulation of the cantilever base. Such experiments allow us to record the phase and the amplitude shift of the modulation signal used. Using the amplitude channel we managed to restore the static force signal with a lower level of noise. Moreover these signals give us direct information about the dynamic stiffness and the lose of energy in the system, information that, using the standard technique would be difficult (or even impossible) to obtain.

EPFL2012

Scaling properties of DNA knots studied by atomic force microscopy

Erika Ercolini

The main subject of the present thesis is the experimental study of the scaling properties of DNA knots of different complexities by tapping mode atomic force microscopy (AFM) in air. Homo- or heterogeneous mixture of DNA knot types were deposited onto mica in regimes of (i) strong adsorption, which induces a kinetic trapping of the molecules, and of (ii) weak adsorption, which permits relaxation on the surface. The contour of each knotted molecule was analyzed by a box counting algorithm, giving the number of boxes containing a part of the molecule, N(L), as a function of the box size, L, allowing to recover the relation N(L) ≈ L-df, where df is the fractal dimension and ν = 1/df is the scaling exponent. This relationship is complicated by the presence of a persistence length of DNA (about 50 nm) which introduces a crossover from a rigid rod behavior to a self-avoiding walk behavior. In (i) the radius of gyration of the adsorbed DNA knot scales with the 3D Flory exponent ν ≈ 0.58 within error. In (ii), the value ν ≈ 0.66, intermediate between the 3D and 2D (ν = 3/4) exponents, was found, indicating an incomplete 2D relaxation or a different polymer universality class. A different analysis, where the fractal dimension was determined by a customized box counting algorithm giving the knot mass as a function of the box size, yielded compatible results. In the case of weak binding conditions, AFM images show evidence of the localization of knot crossings, which is an effect theoretically predicted for knotted polymers confined in two dimensions (flat knots). Part of this thesis is dedicated to a fascinating application of AFM: the imaging of biomolecules in an aqueous buffer. In particular, images of plasmids adsorbed to mica strong enough to be visualized and loosely enough to see them moving in consecutive scans will be shown. The possibility of imaging under buffer molecules loosely anchored to the substrate opens the way to the investigation of biological processes near physiological conditions. The first step of the study of homologous recombination will be presented. We will also show images concerning our study of the activity of topoisomerase I on supercoiled plasmids. Clusters of DNA molecules and proteins were found when imaging in presence of magnesium, in agreement with recent findings by AFM in air. The research on topoisomerases and their interactions with inhibitors or poisons is a hot topic, being these enzymes targets of anti-cancer drugs. Our study paves the way to the investigation of the activity of topoisomerase II, the enzyme which removes knots from DNA. Finally, the principles of static and dynamic light scattering, and the results of dynamic light scattering on latex beads of known size will be presented. Particular emphasis will be given to the discussion of the contribution of light scattering techniques for future experiments on the study of the static and dynamic properties of DNA knotted molecules in solution. These experiments would contribute to shed light on the possible dependence of the gyration radius of knotted polymers on the knot type, and would allow testing theoretical predictions about their relaxation time.