Comparison of LPCVD and sputter-etched ZnO layers applied as front electrodes in tandem thin-film silicon solar cells

Aluminum-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Al) layers deposited by sputtering and boron-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:B) layers deposited by low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) are well-established materials for front electrodes in thin-film silicon solar cells. In this study, both types of front electrodes are evaluated with respect to their inherent properties and their surface textures in micromorph tandem solar cells in the superstrate configuration. The silicon layer stack investigated here consists of a 220-nm-thick amorphous silicon top cell, a 40-nm-thick intermediate reflector and a 1.1-mu m-thick microcrystalline silicon bottom cell; for this specific silicon layer stack, the LPCVD ZnO:B provides higher power conversion efficiency than its sputtered ZnO:Al counterpart. The growth-friendly surface topography of ZnO:Al yields better electrical performance. However, tandem cells on ZnO:Al suffer from a fundamental optical limitation in terms of light trapping in the top cell. They also show a higher parasitic absorption linked to the relatively high doping concentration of the ZnO:Al layers used here. Detailed analysis of the experimental results allows us to clearly understand the opto-electrical behavior of both types of cells and envisage several possible upgrades to further improve their performance. (C) 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Multiscale transparent electrode architecture for efficient light management and carrier collection in solar cells

Christophe Ballif, Corsin Battaglia, Mathieu Gérard Boccard, Matthieu Despeisse, Jordi Escarre Palou, Simon Hänni, Sylvain Nicolay, Karin Söderström

The challenge for all photovoltaic technologies is to maximize light absorption, to convert photons with minimal losses into electric charges, and to efficiently extract them to the electrical circuit. For thin-film solar cells, all these tasks rely heavily on the transparent front electrode. Here we present a multiscale electrode architecture that allows us to achieve efficiencies as high as 14.1% with a thin-film silicon tandem solar cell employing only 3 μm of silicon. Our approach combines the versatility of nanoimprint lithography, the unusually high carrier mobility of hydrogenated indium oxide (over 100 cm(2)/V/s), and the unequaled light-scattering properties of self-textured zinc oxide. A multiscale texture provides light trapping over a broad wavelength range while ensuring an optimum morphology for the growth of high-quality silicon layers. A conductive bilayer stack guarantees carrier extraction while minimizing parasitic absorption losses. The tunability accessible through such multiscale electrode architecture offers unprecedented possibilities to address the trade-off between cell optical and electrical performance.

2012

L'oxyde de zinc par dépôt chimique en phase vapeur comme contact électrique transparent et diffuseur de lumière pour les cellules solaires

Sylvie Faÿ

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a material that belongs to the family of Transparent Conductives Oxides (TCO). Its non-toxicity and the abundant availability in the Earth's crust of its components make it an ideal candidate as electrical transparent contact for thin-film amorphous and/or microcrystalline silicon solar cells. The Low-Pressure Chemical Vapour Deposition (LP-CVD) method allows one to obtain rough ZnO layers, which can effectively scatter the light that passes through them. This high scattering capacity increases the path of the light within the solar cell and therefore enhances its probability to be absorbed by the solar cell, and consequently the photogenerated current. This thesis work studies in detail the LP-CVD technology used for deposition of ZnO layers, which are employed as TCO layers for amorphous, microcrystalline and "micromorph" (microcrystalline/amorphous tandem) solar cells developped at the Institute of Microtechnology of the University of Neuchâtel. The chapter 3 is a detailed study of the growth of ZnO layers on a glass substrate. This study reveals a columnar microstructure of the ZnO layers, which are composed of large conical monocrystals. The tops of these monocrystals emerge at the surface of the ZnO layers as pyramids, which give to such layers their rough aspect and therefore their capacity of scattering the light. The two following chapters represent a study of the effect of variations in deposition parameters on the optical properties (transparency and scattering power), electrical properties (conductivity), and structural properties of ZnO layers. The deposition parameters varied thereby are the various gas flows, the substrate temperature, and the process pressure. In particular, a strong influence of the substrate temperature on the microstructure of the ZnO layers is observed. A variation of ten degrees of this deposition temperature leads to abrupt variations of the optical and electrical properties of the layers. From these various studies, a strong correlation is established, between the scattering power, the electrical properties, and the microstructure of the ZnO layers deposited by LP-CVD: The higher the pyramidal grains at the surface of the layers, the higher the scattering capacity of these layers. The larger the monocrystals within the bulk of the layers, the higher the mobility of the free electrons. This enhanced mobility leads to an increase of the conductivity of the layers. Finally, the chapter 6 of this thesis work describes the various situations where LP-CVD ZnO layers are used as transparent electrical contacts and light scattering layers in thin-film silicon solar cells. It is schown that, by incorporating ZnO layers developped in this work in the photovoltaic devices, an increase of 8% in the photogenerated current is obtained, compared to the performances of solar cells using standard commercially available TCO.

EPFL2003

Electrical Losses Mitigation in Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells

Laurie-Lou Senaud

To overcome the worldwide challenges of climate change, photovoltaics is foreseen to play a significant role in the world electricity production. Nowadays, single junction crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells hold the largest share of the global photovoltaic market. To achieve their maximum energy conversion efficiency, carrier-selective passivating contacts have been demonstrated to be the most promising technologies. Among them, silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells are expected to further reduce the cost of photovoltaics. Indeed, they have achieved record efficiency thanks to high c-Si bulk quality and excellent full area surface passivation. However, despite remarkable performance, the material layers used to build SHJ cells are at the origin of significant trade-offs between electrical and optical properties. In particular, the properties coupling arising between the layers can cause significant electrical transport losses, strongly capping the SHJ device performance. The aim of this thesis is to accurately describe, quantify, and mitigate the electrical losses occurring in SHJ solar cells by means of advanced methodologies and characterization methods.Key outcomes of this work are fourfold. First, we introduce a generalized and unambiguous description of the concept of contact using the terminology of shell. Then, we propose a characterization methodology using two new approaches named top-down and bottom-up, designed to independently track the properties of the material layers used to build the shells, as well as the performance of the solar cells incorporating the shells. This was shown to allow one to accurately investigate and mitigate the electrical and optical losses affecting solar cells. Secondly, we present transfer length method (TLM) measurements under variable illumination as a novel advanced characterization method to study the electrical transport losses in SHJ devices. We demonstrated (i) that illumination, i.e., the injected carrier density inside the c-Si bulk, has a strong impact on the contact resistivity (rc), (ii) the importance of measuring rc under maximum power point conditions for a relevant characterization of transport losses, and (iii) how the dependence of the rc on the injected carrier density enables the comparison of the illumination response of different SHJ shells. In addition, we conducted preliminary investigations of the applicability of TLM under illumination to measure p-type shell parts on n-type c-Si wafers. Thirdly, we engineered various material layers and studied their properties. Multilayering the thin hydrogenated silicon and the TCO layers demonstrated a high potential for electrical losses mitigation by (i) improving the properties coupling in the shell, (ii) addressing the constraints of the device architecture, and (iii) mitigating the trade-offs impacting solar cell performance. Finally, the last outcome is the integration of the most promising shells in actual baseline solar cells. This resulted in fill-factors up to 83.2%, for 6-inch SHJ cells, and in efficiencies up to 25.45% for SHJ IBC cells. Finally, combining optimal electrical and optical shell properties, an impressive efficiency of 24.24% was achieved using an aluminium-doped zinc oxide as rear TCO. The advanced methodologies and characterization methods presented in this work are foreseen to drive the understanding and optimization of other solar cell technologies such as, e.g. TOPCon or tandem solar cells.