Microscope confocal

Résumé

vignette|upright=2|Schéma de principe du microscope confocal par Marvin Minsky en 1957. vignette|upright=1.5|Principe de fonctionnement du microscope à fluorescence puis du microscope confocal. Un microscope confocal, appelé plus rarement microscope monofocal, est un microscope optique qui a la propriété de réaliser des images de très faible profondeur de champ (environ ) appelées « sections optiques ». En positionnant le plan focal de l’objectif à différents niveaux de profondeur dans l’échantillon, il est possible de réaliser des séries d’images à partir desquelles on peut obtenir une représentation tridimensionnelle de l’objet. L'objet n'est donc pas directement observé par l'utilisateur ; celui-ci voit une image recomposée par ordinateur. Le microscope confocal fonctionne en lumière réfléchie ou en fluorescence. La plupart du temps, on utilise un laser comme source de lumière. On parle alors de microscope confocal à balayage laser — MCBL (en anglais CLSM pour en). Le principe

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Cell-based drug carriers present an interesting approach to improve the targeted delivery of therapeutic drugs in vivo. Specifically, bacterial cells possess interesting properties such as motility and sensing that allow some strains to selectively target tumor areas. Immobilization of abiotic materials on the cell surface of such bacterial cells can therefore enable the delivery of therapeutic compounds at the desired location. The work presented in this thesis explores the fabrication and characterization of bacteria-nanoparticle biohybrids as potential carriers for drug delivery applications.Chapter 1 presents a review of the scientific literature that covers the different approaches to immobilize abiotic materials on the surface of bacteria. It highlights the advantages of using cells as carriers for the transport of therapeutics. An effective drug delivery agent should present great motility, viability, biodistribution and biocompatibility with human cells. Examples of various chemical approaches to surface-modify bacteria are presented. Chapter 2 systematically explores the immobilization of polystyrene nanoparticles on the surface of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella typhimurium (Salmonella) cells. We compared the nanoparticle immobilization using four different conjugations strategies (electrostatic, covalent and ligand-ligand) and characterized the bio-hybrids systems using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Two different microscopy techniques were used: the first was based on 3D-reconstruction of z-stacks of single bacterium to investigate position of nanoparticles on the membrane; the second allowed for a large screening of bacteria followed by image processing determining the area of bacteria covered by nanoparticles. We observed that the efficiency of the surface modification is correlated to the initial nanoparticle/cell ratio and that non-covalent strategies allowed for increased number of biohybrids formed and nanoparticle attached. This study provides an overview of the variety of conjugation strategies (and their conjugation efficiencies) available for fabricating nanoparticle-decorated bacteria and presents us an opportunity to better understand and design bacteria-based target-specific drug delivery systems.Chapter 3 presents the characterization of the previously developed bacteria-nanoparticle biohybrids as potential carriers for nanoparticle transport. The viability of the various conjugates was determined by flow cytometry indicating a decrease in cell viability with increasing numbers of nanoparticles immobilized on the membrane. The motility was studied to investigate the impact of nanoparticle attachment on the bacterial velocity as well as the capacity to transport the cargo. Bacteria were able to transport nanoparticles when prepared with low ratios of nanoparticle/cell.

EPFL2022

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Multidisciplinary Investigation of the Gut-Brain Ecosystem in a Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Arielle Louise Planchette

The search for an understanding of the causal elements that lead to neurodegenerative diseases has motivated researchers for decades. Today, Alzheimer's disease is the most prevalent form of dementia and affects approximately fifty million people worldwide, with only 5% of patients carrying causal genetic mutations. In recent years, studies of animal models as well as observations in humans have brought the gut microbiome to the forefront of AD research, as a significant contributor to the development of Alzheimer's disease. In fact, the gut microbiome is now understood to be a modulator of health and disease in numerous areas of physiology, including energy metabolism, immunity, endocrinology, and most relevant to this thesis, brain health and cognition. The gut microbiome is a complex environment composed of symbiotic bacteria, fungi and viruses (the microbiota) that produce a wide range of signalling molecules that are interpreted both by members of the microbiota and by the host (the microbiome). The host-gut interface is an ecosystem that consists of bi-directional signals and pressures applied by both constituents in order to maintain symbiotic homeostasis. Significant deleterious effects on health occur when homeostasis is lost, which may take place due to a variety of factors. These include host genetic factors and environmental factors, such as diet. Modulation of the gut microbiome has become a potentially viable therapeutic avenue for Alzheimer's disease, though it currently remains at the early stage of discovery. In this thesis, I characterize the evolution of Alzheimer's disease in the 5xFAD mouse model, with a focus on the gut microbiome and on cognitive decline and brain biochemistry. Gut microbiota modulaiton was implemented using germ-free and low-complexity bacterial cocktails, in which I outline the effects microbiota modulation on hallmarks of AD and provide insights into the metabolite profile of the brain altered by the microbiota and AD. The work in this thesis was equally motivated by the development of diagnostic tools using microscopy techniques. Biochemical assessments of disease status and progression provide information pertaining to "what" is interacting and "how much" this affects disease. With microscopy, we may gain the additional knowledge of "where" physiological constituents are and how they interact with the surrounding environment. I describe a novel multi-modal microscopy pipeline that enables the observation of signals of interest in large volumes and at high resolution with a capacity to cross-reference regions of interest in both modalities. The pipeline, known as gutOPT, consists of a sample preparation workflow compatible with mesoscale optical projection tomography (OPT) of fluorescently-labelled targets and subsequent imaging of pre-selected regions of interest in high-resolution modalities, such as confocal microscopy.

EPFL2022

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Dual-Activatable Cell Tracker for Controlled and Prolonged Single-Cell Labeling

Salome Riccarda Püntener, Pablo Rivera Fuentes

Cell trackers are fluorescent chemical tools that facilitate imaging and tracking cells within live organisms. Despite their versatility, these dyes lack specificity, tend to leak outside of the cell, and stain neighboring cells. Here, we report a dual-activatable cell tracker for increased spatial and temporal staining control, especially for single-cell tracking. This probe overcomes the typical problems of current cell trackers: off-target staining, high background signal, and leakage from the intracellular medium. Staining with this dye is not cytotoxic, and it can be used in sensitive primary cells. Moreover, this dye is resistant to harsh fixation and permeabilization conditions and allows for multi-wavelength studies with confocal microscopy and fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Using this cell tracker, we performed in vivo homing experiments in mice with primary splenocytes and tracked a single cell in a heterogeneous, multicellular culture environment for over 20 h. These experiments, in addition to comparative proliferation studies with other cell trackers, demonstrated that the signal from this dye is retained in cells for over 72 h after photoactivation. We envision that this type of probes will facilitate the analysis of single-cell behavior and migration in cell culture and in vivo experiments.

AMER CHEMICAL SOC2020

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Multidisciplinary Investigation of the Gut-Brain Ecosystem in a Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Arielle Louise Planchette

EPFL2022