Exposant critiqueLors d'une transition de phase de deuxième ordre, au voisinage du point critique, les systèmes physiques ont des comportements universels en lois de puissances caractérisées par des exposants critiques. Au point critique, un fluide est caractérisé par une température critique et une densité critique . Pour une température légèrement supérieure à (à nombre de particules et volume constants), le système est homogène avec une densité . Pour une température légèrement inférieure à , il y a une séparation de phase entre une phase liquide (de densité ) et une phase gazeuse (de densité ).
HystérésisL'hystérésis (ou hystérèse), du grec grc (« après », « plus tard »), substantif féminin, est la propriété d'un système dont l'évolution ne suit pas le même chemin selon qu'une cause extérieure augmente ou diminue. Soit une grandeur cause notée C produisant une grandeur effet notée E. On dit qu'il y a hystérésis lorsque la courbe E = f(C) obtenue à la croissance de C ne se superpose pas avec la courbe E = f(C) obtenue à la décroissance de C.
Physical dependencePhysical dependence is a physical condition caused by chronic use of a tolerance-forming drug, in which abrupt or gradual drug withdrawal causes unpleasant physical symptoms. Physical dependence can develop from low-dose therapeutic use of certain medications such as benzodiazepines, opioids, antiepileptics and antidepressants, as well as the recreational misuse of drugs such as alcohol, opioids and benzodiazepines. The higher the dose used, the greater the duration of use, and the earlier age use began are predictive of worsened physical dependence and thus more severe withdrawal syndromes.
Phénomène critiquevignette|Point critique de l'éthane : 1. état subcritique, liquide et gaz ; 2. opalescence critique ; 3. fluide supercritique. En physique, un phénomène critique est un phénomène associé à une transition de phase du deuxième ordre d'un système thermodynamique. Par exemple la transition de phase ferromagnétique et le comportement au voisinage du point critique liquide-gaz. La plupart des phénomènes critiques proviennent d'une divergence de la ou d'un ralentissement de la dynamique.
Transition metal carbene complexA transition metal carbene complex is an organometallic compound featuring a divalent organic ligand. The divalent organic ligand coordinated to the metal center is called a carbene. Carbene complexes for almost all transition metals have been reported. Many methods for synthesizing them and reactions utilizing them have been reported. The term carbene ligand is a formalism since many are not derived from carbenes and almost none exhibit the reactivity characteristic of carbenes.
Cocaine dependenceCocaine dependence is a neurological disorder that is characterized by withdrawal symptoms upon cessation from cocaine use. It also often coincides with cocaine addiction which is a biopsychosocial disorder characterized by persistent use of cocaine and/or crack despite substantial harm and adverse consequences. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., abbreviated DSM-5), classifies problematic cocaine use as a "Stimulant use disorder". The International Classification of Diseases (11th rev.
Alcohol dependenceAlcohol dependence is a previous (DSM-IV and ICD-10) psychiatric diagnosis in which an individual is physically or psychologically dependent upon alcohol (also chemically known as ethanol). In 2013, it was reclassified as alcohol use disorder in DSM-5, which combined alcohol dependence and alcohol abuse into this diagnosis.
Pressure measurementPressure measurement is the measurement of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display pressure mechanically are called pressure gauges, vacuum gauges or compound gauges (vacuum & pressure). The widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge.
Electrical resistivity and conductivityElectrical resistivity (also called volume resistivity or specific electrical resistance) is a fundamental specific property of a material that measures its electrical resistance or how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω⋅m).
Spontaneous magnetizationSpontaneous magnetization is the appearance of an ordered spin state (magnetization) at zero applied magnetic field in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material below a critical point called the Curie temperature or TC. Heated to temperatures above TC, ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic and their magnetic behavior is dominated by spin waves or magnons, which are boson collective excitations with energies in the meV range.
