Membrane (biologie)

Résumé

thumb|350px|Fig 1. Schéma d'une cellule animale type. Organites : (1) Nucléole (2) Noyau (3) Ribosomes (4) Vésicule (5) Réticulum endoplasmique rugueux (ou granuleux) (REG) (6) Appareil de Golgi (7) Cytosquelette (8) Réticulum endoplasmique lisse (9) Mitochondries (10) Vacuole (11) Cytosol (12) Lysosome (13) Centrosome (constitué de deux centrioles) (14) Membrane plasmique La membrane, en biologie cellulaire, est un assemblage de molécules en un double feuillet séparant la cellule de son environnement et délimitant le cytoplasme cellulaire, ainsi que les organites à l'intérieur de celui-ci. La membrane est un ensemble complexe de lipides, de protéines et de sucres (ou oses) régulant les échanges de matière entre l'intérieur et l'extérieur de la cellule ou entre deux compartiments cellulaires par des transporteurs, bourgeonnement de vésicules, phagocytose, etc. Les composants-clé de la membrane biologique sont les phospholipides. Ils ont la capacité de s'auto-organiser en un double feuillet, leurs têtes hydrophiles pointant vers l'extérieur et leurs chaînes hydrophobes pointant vers l'intérieur de la membrane. On parle de membrane plasmique, ou plasmalemme, lorsque celle-ci délimite une cellule (le milieu intérieur est alors le cytoplasme). On parle de membrane intracellulaire, ou endomembrane, lorsqu'elle délimite un organite (p.ex. membrane mitochondriale, nucléaire, lysosomiale, etc.). 1665 : Robert Hooke observe pour la première fois des cellules à l'aide d'un microscope à deux lentilles. Il utilise cette appellation dans son sens originel qui désigne une petite chambre. 1632–1723 : Antoni van Leeuwenhoek observe pour la première fois des protozoaires, des bactéries et des globules rouges grâce à son microscope. 1813 : Eugène Chevreul décrit le concept d'acide gras. Il publie en 1823 ses « Recherches chimiques sur les corps gras d'origine animale ». 1847 : Théodore Nicolas Gobley isole la lécithine du jaune d'œuf. Il est de fait le découvreur des phospholipides.

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https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_(biologie)

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Second harmonic scattering of water in a biological context

Tereza Schönfeldová

Water is one of the most abundant molecules in the universe. It forms a hydrogen bond network with unique structure and dynamics. Hydrogen bonding is highly relevant to many biological processes including membrane formation, protein folding, adsorption, and lubrication. However, the underlying molecular interactions within water and between water and membranes are difficult to study and hence not fully understood. In this thesis, we utilize second harmonic scattering (SHS) to investigate inhomogeneities in bulk water, probe structural changes in lipid bilayer membranes, and detect and characterize protein-membrane interactions. Firstly, we explore the structure of bulk water in comparison to a common model liquid, carbon tetrachloride. Combining SHS measurements and molecular dynamics simulations, we report on the nanoscale inhomogeneities in bulk water that occur on femtosecond timescales. We attribute the rise in the coherent second harmonic (SH) intensity to charge density fluctuations with enhanced nanoscale polarizabilities around transient voids. Even though the transient voids also exist in carbon tetrachloride, they do not show polarizability fluctuations and the SH response of carbon tetrachloride thus corresponds to that of a model isotropic liquid. Then, we study the structure of water around large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs), which serve as a model for cell membranes. We focus on the role of water during the lipid melting phase transition. Using SHS, differential scanning calorimetry, and temperature-dependent zeta-potential measurements, we investigate the structural changes of hydration shells around the vesicle membrane. We use lipids with phosphoserine, phosphocholine, and phosphate headgroups and observe different hydration behavior upon the lipid melting transition depending on the membrane composition. Next, we characterize the interface of membranes composed of lipids containing phosphocholine and phosphate headgroups in solutions with different CaCl2 concentrations. We observe that the SH intensity is decreasing with the addition of CaCl2, which we attribute to the formation of a condensed layer of Na+ counterions on the inner leaflet of the LUVs. Additionally, we extract the vesicle surface potential and second-order surface susceptibility from SHS data for membranes with different content of lipids with phosphate headgroups, and observe composition dependent behaviour which suggests structural membrane reorganization. We continue by exploring protein-membrane interactions using water as a contrast agent. We study a pore-forming toxin, perfringolysin O (PFO), known for selective insertion into cholesterol-rich membranes. Combining SHS measurements and cryo-electron microscopy, we compare the interaction between PFO and LUV membranes with a high and low cholesterol content. By obtaining a sub-picomolar insertion constant of PFO, we show that SHS can be used to determine protein-membrane binding constants in concentration ranges not accessible by conventional methods.Finally, we investigate the interaction of protein aerolysin and its mutants with lipid membranes. We observe changes in surface charge in the cap region of membrane-bound aerolysin at different pH of the surrounding solution. By combining SHS with single-channel measurements, we obtain the membrane binding constant of wild-type aerolysin and its mutants, and we dissect their pore-forming mechanism.

EPFL2022

Dissecting the role of the mitochondrial carrier SLC25A47

Nadia Bresciani

Transporters of the SLC25 mitochondrial carrier superfamily bridge cytoplasmic and mitochondrial metabolism by channeling metabolites across mitochondrial membranes and are pivotal for metabolic homeostasis. Despite their physiological relevance as gatekeepers of cellular metabolism, most of the SLC25 family members remain uncharacterized. During my PhD studies, I investigated the function of SLC25A47, an orphan carrier uniquely expressed in hepatocytes. We used a murine loss-of-function (LOF) model to unravel the role of this transporter in mitochondrial and hepatic homeostasis. Slc25a47hep-/- mice displayed a wide variety of metabolic abnormalities, as a result of sustained energy deficiency in the liver originating from impaired mitochondrial respiration in this organ. This mitochondrial phenotype was associated with a robust activation of the mitochondrial stress response (MSR) in the liver, which in turn, induced the secretion of several mitokines, amongst which FGF21 played a preponderant role in the translation of the effects of the MSR on systemic physiology. To dissect the FGF21-dependent and -independent physiological changes induced by the loss of Slc25a47, we generated a double Slc25a47-Fgf21 LOF mouse model, and demonstrated that several aspects of the hypermetabolic state were entirely driven by hepatic secretion of FGF21. On the other hand, the metabolic fuel inflexibility induced by loss of Slc25a47 could not be rescued by genetic removal of Fgf21. Finally, we challenged Slc25a47hep-/- mice with high-fat high-sucrose (HFHS) diet and observed the development of liver fibrosis.Collectively, the data presented in this thesis show that SLC25A47 is a novel determinant of hepatic metabolism and place this carrier at the center of mitochondrial homeostasis.

EPFL2022

This work demonstrated that consolidated bioprocessing is a promising concept for conversion of lignocellulose to ethanol at industrial scale. CBP offers great cost saving potential, is feasible to be operated continuously and may be scaled up due to extensive knowledge of the process from a chemical engineering point of view.Cost savings of up to 27.5% of the total costs compared to conventional bioethanol production from lignocellulose, as stated by a techno-economic assessment, make continuous CBP the strongest lever to reduce processing costs of lignocellulosic ethanol. A cost sensitivity analysis identified scale and yield as the main cost-pushers from a process point of view, whereas the price level of the plant location has the highest impact on the investment conditions.To prove the feasibility of continuous CBP, and therefore the mentioned cost savings, experiments with a maximum titer of 3.258±0.007 g/L, a productivity of 0.025 g/(Lh) and constant enzyme production over 750h were conducted. Furthermore, the continuous experiments showed that experiments with identical volumetric oxygen transfer rate k_L a, but different oxygen fluxes per membrane area, showed titer differences of ca. 80% (1.83 g/L vs 3.26 g/L) in favor of setups with the large membrane surface. A rigorous process model was developed for continuously operated CBP. 9 species were considered (oxygen, glucose, total concentration Trichoderma reesei, secondary mycelia concentration of T. reesei, enzymes, cellulose, cellobiose, yeast density and ethanol). 8 of these 9 species needed to be modelled spatially resolved to account properly for mass transfer limitations. The fungal biofilm thickness d_f was found to be a critical parameter with an optimum for every membrane configuration. Smaller d_f reduced the fungal biofilm volume and thus, the enzyme production and larger d_f increased the diffusion path length causing shortage in nutrient supply as well as lower enzyme concentrations in the bulk. The enzyme synthesis rate of the secondary mycelia was fitted by reducing it by ca. 40% (0.67 FPU/(mLd) vs 1.152 (FPU/(mL*d) compared to batch models.With the process model as centerpiece, a scale-up framework consisting of the model and a set of non-dimensional parameters was developed to scale CBP from 2.7L laboratory scale to 130L pilot scale. The majority of the non-dimensional parameters could be kept constant during scale-up as requested by the similarity paradigm. Necessary changes were simulated with the model. Again, the fungal biofilm thickness d_f proved to be a relevant parameter for scale-up considerations. In general, the relative loss of biofilm volume is compensated by longer residence times since the residence time has by far the least impact on the process economics.Finally, popular rate-controlled separation techniques were investigated regarding their potential with CBP, since they offer the potential to reduce yeast inhibition, to avoid separation limitations by the azeotrope and they are not bound to the vapor-liquid-equilibrium of highly diluted ethanol-water mixtures. However, most of the mechanisms fail to handle the solids of the fermentation broth. Pervaporation, being the most promising concept for in-situ product removal, would be a cost-saving alternative to distillation for batch operation, but is limited by an unfavorable vapor-liquid equilibrium due to low bulk concentrations during continuous operation.

EPFL2022