In psychology, a set is a group of expectations that shape experience by making people especially sensitive to specific kinds of information. A perceptual set, also called perceptual expectancy, is a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way. Perceptual sets occur in all the different senses. They can be long term, such as a special sensitivity to hearing one's own name in a crowded room, or short term, as in the ease with which hungry people notice the smell of food. A mental set is a framework for thinking about a problem. It can be shaped by habit or by desire. Mental sets can make it easy to solve a class of problem, but attachment to the wrong mental set can inhibit problem-solving and creativity.
Perception can be shaped by "top-down" processes such as drives and expectations. An effect of these factors is that people are particularly sensitive to perceive certain things, detecting them from weaker stimuli than otherwise. A simple demonstration of the effect involved very brief presentations of non-words such as "sael". Subjects who were told to expect words about animals read it as "seal", but others who were expecting boat-related words read it as "sail".
Sets can be created by motivation and so can result in people interpreting ambiguous situations so that they see what they want to see. For instance, a person's experience of the events in a sports match can be biased if they strongly support one of the teams. In one experiment, students were allocated to pleasant or unpleasant tasks by a computer. They were told that either a number or a letter would flash on the screen to say whether they were going to taste an orange juice drink or an unpleasant-tasting health drink. In fact, an ambiguous figure was flashed on screen, which could either be read as the letter B or the number 13. When the letters were associated with the pleasant task, subjects were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13.
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En théorie de la décision et en théorie générale des systèmes, un état d'esprit est un ensemble d'hypothèses, de méthodes ou de notions détenues par une ou plusieurs personnes ou groupes de personnes. Un état d'esprit peut également être considéré comme découlant de la vision du monde ou de la philosophie de vie d'une personne. Un état d'esprit peut être si fermement établi qu'il crée une puissante incitation au sein de ces personnes ou groupes à continuer d'adopter ou d'accepter des comportements, des choix ou des outils antérieurs.
Basic beliefs (also commonly called foundational beliefs or core beliefs) are, under the epistemological view called foundationalism, the axioms of a belief system. Foundationalism holds that all beliefs must be justified in order to be known.
thumb|250px|Universum, C. Flammarion, gravure sur bois, Paris 1888. Un paradigme est — en épistémologie et dans les sciences humaines et sociales – une représentation du monde, une manière de voir les choses, un modèle cohérent du monde qui repose sur un fondement défini (matrice disciplinaire, modèle théorique, courant de pensée). . Le sens français désigne un exemple linguistique. Les paradigmes sont, selon le philosophe des sciences Thomas Samuel Kuhn des .
Primary sensory cortices are remarkably organized in spatial maps according to specific sensory features of the stimuli. These cortical maps can undergo plastic rearrangements after changes in afferent ("bottom-up") sensory inputs such as peripheral lesion ...