Densité surfacique d'énergie

La densité surfacique d'énergie ou énergie surfacique, voire densité énergétique (quand le contexte surfacique est clair), est la quantité d’énergie par une unité de surface. Dans le Système international elle se mesure en J/m (joules par mètre carré). Dans un contexte industriel on l'exprime souvent en kWh/m (kilowatts-heures par mètre carré). Cette grandeur physique est principalement utilisée dans l'étude physique des interfaces entre liquides non miscibles, ou entre liquide et gaz, où elle caractérise l'énergie nécessaire à former une interface d'une certaine surface. Elle caractérise alors globalement l'interface en question. La même unité sert à caractériser macroscopiquement l'effet d'un projectile sur une cible. Applications Physique des interfaces La densité surfacique d'énergie d'une interface, souvent dénommée (quoique improprement) « énergie interfaciale », est généralement comprise entre . Quand les deux phases que sépare l'interface sont fluide

Stability and physical properties of alkylsilane and alkylphosphonate self-assembled monolayer (SAM) films on metal oxide substrates characterized at the micro- and nanoscale

Enamul Hoque

Self-assembled monolayer (SAM) films have attracted immense attention for both fundamental and applied research. A SAM is composed of a large number of molecules with a head group that chemisorbs onto a substrate, a tail group that interacts with the outer surface of the film, and a spacer (backbone) chain group that connects the head and tail groups resulting in a coating. Interactions between spacer groups of different molecules, such as van der Waals forces and/or hydrogen bonding, hasten SAM film formation and contribute to its stability. In this dissertation, SAM and thin films have been formed onto copper and aluminum oxide surfaces by reaction with 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyldimethylchlorosilane (PFMS), 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyltrichlorosilane (PFTS), 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecylphosphonic acid (PFDP), octylphosphonic acid (OP), decylphosphonic acid (DP), and octadecylphosphonic acid (ODP). The properties and stability of the films were investigated employing complementary surface analysis techniques: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), friction force microscopy (FFM), a derivative of AFM, contact angle measurements (CAMs), and Fourier transform infrared reflection/absorption spectroscopy (FT-IRRAS). The perfluoroalkylsilane SAM on Cu is found to be extremely hydrophobic typically having sessile drop static contact angles of more than 130° for pure water and a surface energy of 14 mJ/m2 (mN/m). FFM showed a significant reduction in the adhesive force and friction coefficient of PFMS modified Cu (PFMS/Cu) compared to unmodified Cu. Treatment by exposure to harsh conditions showed that PFMS/Cu SAM can withstand boiling nitric acid (pH=1.8), boiling water, and warm sodium hydroxide (pH=12, 60 °C) solutions for at least 30 minutes. Furthermore, no SAM degradation was observed when PFMS/Cu was exposed to warm nitric acid solution for up to 70 min at 60 °C or 50 min at 80 °C. XPS and FT-IRRAS data reveal a coordination of the PFMS silicon (Si) atom with a cuprate (CuO) molecule present on the oxidized copper substrate. The data give good evidence that the stability of the SAM film on the PFMS modified oxidized Cu surface is largely due to the formation of a siloxy-copper (-Si-O-Cu-) bond via a condensation reaction between silanol (-Si-OH) and copper hydroxide (CuOH). For a PFTS modified Cu surface (PFTS/Cu), the sessile drop static contact angle of pure water has been measured to be more than 125° and the surface energy to be typically less than 16 mJ/m2. Stability tests show that the PFTS/Cu film can survive in boiling pure water for one hour, boiling nitric acid (pH 1.5 or 1.8) for 30 minutes, sodium hydroxide solution (pH 12, 70 °C) for 30 minutes, and autoclave conditions (steam at 134 °C and 3 atmospheres) for 15 minutes. The more commonly used self-assembled monolayer (SAM) modifications of Cu surfaces, e.g. thiol compounds, are significantly less stable than PFTS/Cu. Extremely hydrophobic (low surface energy) and stable PFMS/Cu SAMs and PFTS/Cu films could be useful as corrosion inhibitors in micro/nanoelectronic devices and/or as promoters for anti-wetting, low adhesion surfaces or drop-wise condensation on heat exchange surfaces. XPS analysis confirmed the presence of perfluorinated and non-perfluorinated alkylphosphonate molecules on the PFDP, DP, and ODP SAMs deposited at the aluminum oxide coated silicon (Al/Si) surfaces. The sessile drop static contact angle of pure water on PFDP SAMs was typically more than 130° and on DP and ODP typically more than 125° indicating that the phosphonic acid SAMs reacted with Al samples were very hydrophobic. The surface roughness for PFDP/Al, DP/Al, ODP/Al, and bare Al was approximately 35 nm, as determined by AFM. The surface energy for PFDP/Al was determined to be approximately 11 mJ/m2 by the Zisman plot method compared to 21 mJ/m2 and 20 mJ/m2 for DP/Al and ODP/Al, respectively. PFDP/Al gave the lowest adhesion and friction force while bare Al gave the highest. The adhesion and friction forces for ODP/Al and DP/Al SAMs were in between. ODP, DP, and OP SAMs have been studied in detail on relatively flat aluminum oxide surfaces. The rms surface roughness for ODP/Al, DP/Al, OP/Al, and bare Al was less than 15 nm, as determined by AFM. The sessile drop static contact angle of pure water on ODP/Al and DP/Al was typically more than 115° and on OP/Al typically less than 105°. The surface energy for ODP/Al and DP/Al was determined to be approximately 21 mJ/m2 and 22 mJ/m2, respectively, compared to 26 mJ/m2 for OP/Al. ODP/Al and OP/Al were studied by FFM to better understand their micro-/nano-tribological properties. ODP/Al gave the lowest coefficient of friction values while bare Al gave the highest. The adhesion forces for ODP/Al and OP/Al were comparable. The chemical stability of ODP/Al, PFDP/Al, DP/Al, OP/Al, and PFMS/Al SAMs has been inspected by exposure to warm nitric acid (pH 1.8, 30 min, 60-95 °C). The XPS data and stability against harsh chemical conditions indicate that a type of bond forms between a phosphonic acid (PA) or silane molecule and the oxidized Al surface. Stability tests using warm nitric acid (pH 1.8, 30 min, 60-95 °C) show ODP/Al SAMs to be most stable followed by PFDP/Al, DP/Al, PFMS/Al, and OP/Al SAMs. For PFTS/Al, stability tests demonstrate that modified aluminum is able to survive exposure to warm nitric acid (pH = 1.8, 60 °C, 30 min) indicating some degree of robustness. Hydrophobic, low adhesion, and robust aluminum surfaces have useful applications for micro/nano-electromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS), such as digital micro-mirror devices (DMDs). These studies are expected to aid in the design and selection of proper lubricants for MEMS/NEMS.

EPFL2007

Texture Formation in Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings

Aurèle Mariaux

Continuous hot-dip galvanization is a process during which steel sheets are coated with a layer of Zn-Al alloy to protect them against corrosion. As the name indicates, this is achieved by dipping the preheated sheet into a bath of molten alloy. The sheet is then withdrawn and cooled down in air. The solidification microstructure of such coatings is made of large zinc grains (spangles), which preferentially have their hexagonal ‹0001› axis perpendicular to the sheet plane (basal texture). The mechanisms leading to this preferred orientation were investigated in this study, with a particular focus on nucleation and dendritic growth. An experiment was designed to reproduce the solidification stage of hot-dip galvanization on a laboratory scale. Industrial coatings were remelted in an infrared image furnace and solidified under controlled cooling conditions. Thanks to the wide range of possible cooling rates, the influence of this parameter on the size and orientation of the zinc grains could be investigated. The thermal plateau induced by the solidification of the thin coating could be detected, even for fairly thick steel sheets. However, the signal was better for larger coating/steel thickness ratio. A minimum coating thickness and Al content are needed if Fe-Zn intermetallic outbursts are to be avoided during remelting. Additionally, skin-pass, as well as any deformation of the coated sheets, must be avoided prior to these laboratory experiments. A coupled cellular automaton — finite volume model was concurrently developed to simulate solidification. It was then used to obtain the nucleation parameters of the spangles by inverse modeling based on the remelting experiments. The model accounts for the effects of zinc crystal symmetry and of the confined coating geometry on nucleation and growth phenomena. In particular, the preferred orientation of the grains is included in the nucleation site distribution. Its basal part is still an estimate, but it could be refined from new experimental measurements with the infrared remelting device. On a more fundamental side, a mathematical formulation of the anisotropic solid-liquid interfacial energy of Zn-Al alloys was derived from the equilibrium shape of liquid droplets in a solid matrix. This property changes by more than 40% between the c axis and the basal plane. This very large variation has important effects on the solidification mechanisms. The interfacial energy, as well as the wetting conditions for an anisotropic grain, were then implemented in a phase field model, which was used to simulate the growth of zinc dendrites in coatings. It revealed that the growth directions and velocities are strongly influenced by the film thickness and by anisotropic wetting effects. The possibility that the preferred zinc orientation could be induced by the textured steel substrate was investigated by comparing the orientation of zinc grains with that of the ferrite grains underneath. It was observed that spangles with a random orientation distribution are independent of the substrate. Unfortunately, the observed specimen did not exhibit a basal coating texture and thus, the existence of a relation between basal grains and ferrite texture could not be investigated. The anisotropy formulation was also used to extend the classical theory of heterogeneous nucleation to anisotropic metals. These computations showed that a basal orientation of the nuclei is strongly favored from an energy point of view. Such developments can explain the occurrence of basal grains around holes that form during infrared remelting, so-called rose structures. Preferential basal nucleation and the wetting influence on dendrite growth are also responsible for the morphology transition observed in Galfan, a Zn-Al coating of eutectic composition: when appropriate cooling conditions are applied, a shiny layer of basal grains forms at the top surface before the onset of eutectic solidification. Finally, these mechanisms could also explain the preferential basal orientation of regular hot-dip galvanized coatings. However, the conditions on a galvanizing line do not meet the criteria that are requested to activate them in Galfan. Additionally, the texture of hot-dip coatings is reported to depend on the surface preparation of the sheet, although the anisotropic nucleation theory does not consider the steel substrate. Further investigations on these contradictions are needed before these mechanisms can be used to explain the preferred orientation in regular galvanized coatings.

EPFL2010

Characterization and modeling of twinned dendrite growth

Mario Alberto Salgado Ordorica

The formation of feathery grains during semi-continuous casting of Al-alloys [1, 2] is an interesting problem from both practical and theoretical points of view. These structures are formed by a lamellar sequence of twinned and untwinned regions separated by straight and wavy-like boundaries. Each pair of lamellae contains twinned dendrites split in their trunk center by a coherent {111} twin plane, while lateral arms meet at an incoherent {111} boundary. In practice, feathery grains are considered as defects which reduce the mechanical properties of a solidified ingot. In theory, an understanding of twinned dendrite growth includes different solidification phenomena, e.g., interfacial energy anisotropy, crystallographic growth directions, twinning, growth competition mechanisms, etc. Although several studies have been performed in order to understand the physics leading to the nucleation and growth of twinned dendrites, various questions remain unanswered. In this work, a comprehensive study of twinned dendrite growth has been undertaken, with the main objectives being: i) to study the effect of different alloying elements and solidification conditions on twin formation in binary Al-alloys; ii) to establish a better understanding on the stability of twinned dendrites and the growth kinetic advantage that they exhibit over regular ones; and iii) to elucidate the stable shape of the twinned dendrite tip. In order to study alloying-element effects, binary Al-X alloys (where X = Zn, Mg, Cu and Ni), were produced under Directional Solidification (DS) conditions in the presence of a slight natural convection in the melt. Analysis of these castings has shown that feathery grains can form for all solute elements of interest, but not for all compositions. The probability of forming feathery grains is relatively high when the alloying elements are hcp (Zn or Mg), but decreases for fcc solute elements (Cu or Ni). A study on the effect of forced convection in the melt, performed using different experimental set-ups, confirms previous observations suggesting that it is the shearing components of the liquid slow which induce twin nucleation [3, 4]. However, the poor reproducibility of these experiments and the variable rate of feathery grains formation indicate that twin nucleation is governed by a highly stochastic behavior. The probability of such an event decreases as the melt slow is less complex and the associated Stacking Fault Energy (SFE) of the alloying element is increased. In terms of growth kinetics advantage, a characterization using various metallography techniques and X-ray synchroton tomography has shown that this is in part due to the complex morphology of twinned dendrites. Indeed, it has been confirmed that these dendrites grow along ‹110› directions with ‹110›, and also sometimes ‹100› secondary arms, the primary trunk spacing of these dendrites being much less anisotropic than previously thought [5, 6]. It has been shown that twinned dendrites grow in a stable manner at a lower undercooling than regular ones. In addition, the distribution and orientation of their side arms favors their growth at the expense of less developed regular dendrites. A mechanism to explain the lateral multiplication of twin planes is also proposed in this work. In terms of stability, observations after partial remelting of twinned DS specimens, then re-solidification in a Bridgman furnace, have shown that even if twin planes remain stable during partial remelting, independent regular non-twinned dendrites issued from the twinned and untwinned parts of the seed grow during solidification. This implies that the formation of twinned dendrites is not only related to the ability to nucleate a stacking fault, but also to the imposed solidification conditions. The favorable growth kinetics of twinned dendrites is also explained by their tip morphology. Three hypotheses have been evaluated in this work: i) the grooved tip [7], stabilized by the Young-Laplace equilibrium condition; ii) the doublon [5], i.e., a double tip dendrite that grows with a narrow liquid channel in its center that solidifies at a composition close to C0; and iii) the pointed (or edgy) tip [8], equilibrated by torque terms of γsl when it is too anisotropic. Observations performed at the twinned dendrite tip have revealed the presence of a small groove, which eliminates definitively the hypothesis of the edgy tip. Further examination of the stable growth morphology of twinned dendrites has been done by using a phase field model that reproduces the presence of a twin plane through an appropriate boundary condition. The results of these simulations show that twinned dendrites are doublons that grow with a narrow liquid channel (0.2 to 3 µm width) whose depth depends strongly on the alloy composition and the solidification conditions. In order to validate these simulations, Focused Ion Beam (FIB)-microtomography and X-ray chemical analysis (EDS) in a Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) were performed on small specimens extracted from twinned dendrite trunks. These have shown the existence of a positive solute gradient in a region localized within 2 µm around the twin plane, i.e., as expected for a doublon morphology. Additionally, the presence of small particles aligned within the twin plane is in agreement with the formation of small liquid pockets below the doublon root as predicted by the numerical model, but further work is required to explain this remarkable feature. Finally, composition measurements performed after quenching a partially remelted specimen also seem to confirm the existence of a doublon. This work contributes to the understanding on twinned dendrite growth kinetics in several aspects, principally the effect of alloying elements on twin formation, their growth kinetic advantage, their stability and their stable tip morphology. However, further work must be carried out to overcome the limited knowledge on the mechanisms leading to twinned dendrite nucleation. In the same manner, the growth mechanisms of the doublon morphology should also be further investigated in future works.

EPFL2009