Fréquence (statistiques)vignette|Fréquence des traits de kanji En statistique, on appelle fréquence absolue l'effectif des observations d'une classe et fréquence relative ou simplement fréquence, le quotient de cet effectif par celui de la population. L'expression fréquence = valeur n'est jamais ambigüe. Si valeur est un nombre entier positif, il s'agit de la fréquence absolue, c'est-à-dire l'effectif de la classe. Si valeur est un nombre compris entre 0 et 1 ou un pourcentage, il s'agit de la fréquence relative.
Fat-tailed distributionA fat-tailed distribution is a probability distribution that exhibits a large skewness or kurtosis, relative to that of either a normal distribution or an exponential distribution. In common usage, the terms fat-tailed and heavy-tailed are sometimes synonymous; fat-tailed is sometimes also defined as a subset of heavy-tailed. Different research communities favor one or the other largely for historical reasons, and may have differences in the precise definition of either.
Rapport signal sur bruitEn électronique, le rapport signal sur bruit (SNR, ) est le rapport des puissances entre la partie du signal qui représente une information et le reste, qui constitue un bruit de fond. Il est un indicateur de la qualité de la transmission d'une information. L'expression d'un rapport signal sur bruit se fonde implicitement sur le principe de superposition, qui pose que le signal total est la somme de ces composantes. Cette condition n'est vraie que si le phénomène concerné est linéaire.
Ratio distributionA ratio distribution (also known as a quotient distribution) is a probability distribution constructed as the distribution of the ratio of random variables having two other known distributions. Given two (usually independent) random variables X and Y, the distribution of the random variable Z that is formed as the ratio Z = X/Y is a ratio distribution. An example is the Cauchy distribution (also called the normal ratio distribution), which comes about as the ratio of two normally distributed variables with zero mean.
Critiques des théories de l'évolutionEn tant que théorie scientifique, la théorie darwinienne de l'évolution des espèces par sélection naturelle fait l'objet de diverses critiques. L'idée d'évolution biologique est souvent rejetée car elle s'oppose à une vision spirituelle de l'homme, en le présentant comme le simple résultat du hasard, obéissant uniquement à des lois mécaniques et matérielles, et non le résultat d'un dessein où l'homme pourrait trouver du sens, en particulier par des croyants qui refusent l'idée d'évolution par fidélité à certains textes sacrés comme la Torah, la Bible ou le Coran.
In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopyIn vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a specialized technique associated with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), also known as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, is a non-invasive, ionizing-radiation-free analytical technique that has been used to study metabolic changes in brain tumors, strokes, seizure disorders, Alzheimer's disease, depression, and other diseases affecting the brain. It has also been used to study the metabolism of other organs such as muscles.
Evolution as fact and theoryMany scientists and philosophers of science have described evolution as fact and theory, a phrase which was used as the title of an article by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould in 1981. He describes fact in science as meaning data, not known with absolute certainty but "confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent". A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of such facts.
Theistic evolutionTheistic evolution (also known as theistic evolutionism or God-guided evolution) is a view that God acts and creates through laws of nature. It posits that the concept of God is compatible with the findings of modern science, including evolution. Theistic evolution is not in itself a scientific theory, but includes a range of views about how science relates to religious beliefs and the extent to which God intervenes. It rejects the strict creationist doctrines of special creation, but can include beliefs such as creation of the human soul.
Carrier-to-noise ratioIn telecommunications, the carrier-to-noise ratio, often written CNR or C/N, is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of a modulated signal. The term is used to distinguish the CNR of the radio frequency passband signal from the SNR of an analog base band message signal after demodulation. For example, with FM radio, the strength of the 100 MHz carrier with modulations would be considered for CNR, whereas the audio frequency analogue message signal would be for SNR; in each case, compared to the apparent noise.
AnalysisAnalysis (: analyses) is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development. The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analysis, "a breaking-up" or "an untying;" from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening"). From it also comes the word's plural, analyses.
