Individual and Inter-related Action Unit Detection in Videos for Affect Recognition

The human face has evolved to become the most important source of non-verbal information that conveys our affective, cognitive and mental state to others. Apart from human to human communication facial expressions have also become an indispensable component of human-machine interaction (HMI). Systems capable of understanding how users feel allow for a wide variety of applications in medical, learning, entertainment and marketing technologies in addition to advancements in neuroscience and psychology research and many others. The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) has been built to objectively define and quantify every possible facial movement through what is called Action Units (AU), each representing an individual facial action. In this thesis we focus on the automatic detection and exploitation of these AUs using novel appearance representation techniques as well as incorporation of the prior co-occurrence information between them. Our contributions can be grouped in three parts. In the first part, we propose to improve the detection accuracy of appearance features based on local binary patterns (LBP) for AU detection in videos. For this purpose, we propose two novel methodologies. The first one uses three fundamental image processing tools as a pre-processing step prior to the application of the LBP transform on the facial texture. These tools each enhance the descriptive ability of LBP by emphasizing different transient appearance characteristics, and are proven to increase the AU detection accuracy significantly in our experiments. The second one uses multiple local curvature Gabor binary patterns (LCGBP) for the same problem and achieves state-of-the-art performance on a dataset of mostly posed facial expressions. The curvature information of the face, as well as the proposed multiple filter size scheme is very effective in recognizing these individual facial actions. In the second part, we propose to take advantage of the co-occurrence relation between the AUs, that we can learn through training examples. We use this information in a multi-label discriminant Laplacian embedding (DLE) scheme to train our system with SIFT features extracted around the salient and transient landmarks on the face. The system is first validated on a challenging (containing lots of occlusions and head pose variations) dataset without the DLE, then we show the performance of the full system on the FERA 2015 challenge on AU occurence detection. The challenge consists of two difficult datasets that contain spontaneous facial actions at different intensities. We demonstrate that our proposed system achieves the best results on these datasets for detecting AUs. The third and last part of the thesis contains an application on how this automatic AU detection system can be used in real-life situations, particularly for detecting cognitive distraction. Our contribution in this part is two-fold: First, we present a novel visual database of people driving a simulator while being induced visual and cognitive distraction via secondary tasks. The subjects have been recorded using three near-infrared camera-lighting systems, which makes it a very suitable configuration to use in real driving conditions, i.e. with large head pose and ambient light variations. Secondly, we propose an original framework to automatically discriminate cognitive distraction sequences from baseline sequences by extracting features from continuous AU signals and by exploiting the cross-correlations between them. We achieve a very high classification accuracy in our subject-based experiments and a lower yet acceptable performance for the subject-independent tests. Based on these results we discuss how facial expressions related to this complex mental state are individual, rather than universal, and also how the proposed system can be used in a vehicle to help decrease human error in traffic accidents.