Central pattern generator

Central pattern generators (CPGs) are self-organizing biological neural circuits that produce rhythmic outputs in the absence of rhythmic input. They are the source of the tightly-coupled patterns of neural activity that drive rhythmic and stereotyped motor behaviors like walking, swimming, breathing, or chewing. The ability to function without input from higher brain areas still requires modulatory inputs, and their outputs are not fixed. Flexibility in response to sensory input is a fundamental quality of CPG-driven behavior. To be classified as a rhythmic generator, a CPG requires: "two or more processes that interact such that each process sequentially increases and decreases, and that, as a result of this interaction, the system repeatedly returns to its starting condition." CPGs have been found in invertebrates, and practically all vertebrate species investigated, including humans. CPG neurons can have different intrinsic membrane properties (see schematic). Some neurons fire bursts of action potentials, either endogenously or in the presence of neuromodulatory substances. Other neurons are bistable and generate plateau potentials that can be triggered by a depolarizing current pulse, and terminated by a hyperpolarizing current pulse. Many CPG neurons fire after being released from inhibition (postinhibitory rebound). Another common feature of CPG neurons is a decrease in the frequency of firing during a constant depolarization (spike frequency adaptation). Rhythm generation in CPG networks depends on the intrinsic properties of CPG neurons and their synaptic connections. There are two general mechanisms for rhythm generation: pacemaker/follower and reciprocal inhibition (see schematic). In a network driven by a pacemaker, one or more neurons act as a core oscillator (pacemaker) that drives other, non-bursting neurons (follower) into a rhythmic pattern. Examples of pacemaker driven networks include the pyloric rhythm of the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion and the vertebrate respiratory rhythms.

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Spinal cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column (backbone). The backbone encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, the spinal cord begins at the occipital bone, passing through the foramen magnum and then enters the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae.

Reticular formation

The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem. It is not anatomically well defined, because it includes neurons located in different parts of the brain. The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of networks in the core of the brainstem that extend from the upper part of the midbrain to the lower part of the medulla oblongata. The reticular formation includes ascending pathways to the cortex in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and descending pathways to the spinal cord via the reticulospinal tracts.

Central pattern generator

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