Electromagnet

Summary

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the hole in the center of the coil. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, electromechanical solenoids, rela

Official source

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnet

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In one of its acceptation, the word quench is synonym of destruction. And this is even more consistent with reality in the case of the Large Hadron Collider dipole magnets, whose magnetic field and stored energy are unprecedented: the uncontrolled transition from the superconducting to the resistive state can be the origin of dramatic events. This is why the protection of magnets is so important, and why so many studies and investigations have been carried out on quench origin. The production, cold testing and installation of the 1232 arc dipole magnets is completed. They have fulfilled all the requirements and the operation reliability of these magnets has already been partially confirmed. From an academic standpoint, nevertheless, the anomalous mechanical behaviour, which was sometimes observed during power tests, has not yet been given a clear explanation. The work presented in this thesis aims at providing an instrument to better understand the reasons for such anomalies, by means of finite element modelling of the cross-section of the dipole cold mass. During the investigation on quench phenomenology and its characterization, a distinction can be done between the two main quench origins during cold test without beam: the local degradation of the conductor and the frictional heating resulting from mechanical disturbances (such as conductor motion under the effects of the Lorentz forces). Concerning the second type, it is illustrated how important a good positioning of the cables is in a magnet cross-section and which is the fundamental role of azimuthal pre-stress. There are numerous studies of the consequences of conductor motion under the effect of electro-magnetic forces and of the loss of pre-stress during energization. However, no model has ever been able to reproduce in detail and predict such phenomena. The present model, developed in ANSYS® environment, was initiated with the idea of representing the real behaviour of an LHC-type dipole coil, by taking into account each turn individually, reproducing the non-linear and hysteretic mechanical behaviour observed on a stack of insulated cables and inserting friction between mating surfaces. The representation of the mechanical complexity of the composite material is certainly one of the originalities of this study. To validate the model, a comparison with elastic modulus measurements, systematically performed in industry, was carried out, both for single layers and for assembled poles. The agreement is certainly worth the effort lavished and justifies the following steps in simulation, which are the modelling of the collaring mechanism and the cool-down process. These are other important and original elements. The last one, in particular, requires progressively changing the mechanical properties of the superconductor, following the temperature profile. This implied some simplifications to comply with the enhanced convergence difficulties, but does not invalidate the goodness of the description and the results obtained. This is a faithful reproduction of a magnet life-cycle, uncommon in this kind of studies.

EPFL2009

This thesis was carried out within the framework of a scientific cooperation project entitled “Application of High Power Electromagnetics to Human Safety” developed by the EPFL, the National University of Colombia and Los Andes University, Colombia. The project was funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) through the EPFL Centre Coopéation & Développement (CODEV). The Scientific Cooperation aimed at the study and development of techniques for the generation of high power electromagnetic signals for the disruption or preemptive activation of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) during humanitarian clearance activities. The results and conclusions of the thesis will be applied to the construction of a resonant radiator, which can be used for securing humanitarian demining operations in Colombia. The thesis is devoted to the analysis of a specific type of resonant radiators known as Switched Oscillators (SWO). An SWO is a radiator constituted by a high voltage charging circuit that drives a quarter-wave transmission line resonator connected to an antenna. An SWO can produce high-amplitude, short duration, electromagnetic fields, with a moderate bandwidth, when compared to the main resonance frequency. The outcome of the thesis can be also be used in electromagnetic compatibility applications, for the production of resonant, high power electromagnetic fields, with the aim of testing the immunity of electronic systems against Intentional Electromagnetic Interference (IEMI) attacks. The thesis is divided in three parts. The first part deals with the electrostatic design of an SWO. A method for producing an optimized design of the electrodes forming the spark gap of the SWO is presented. The method is based on the generation of a curvilinear coordinate space on which the electrodes are conformal to one of the coordinate axis of the space. Laplace equation is solved in the interelectrodic space, obtaining an analytical solution for the electrostatic distribution. Furthermore, using appropriate mathematical manipulations, we derive an analytical expression for the impedance of the transmission line formed by the proposed electrodes. The second part of the thesis is devoted to the analysis of SWOs in the frequency domain. An original analysis approach, based on the chain-parameter technique, is proposed in which the SWO and the connected antenna are described using a two-port network using which a transfer function between the input voltage and the radiated field is established. A closed form expression of the resonance frequency of the SWO is also obtained. The developed technique makes it possible to study the response of an SWO when connected to an arbitrary antenna with a frequency-dependent input impedance. The final part of the thesis presents the construction and test of an SWO prototype. The prototype design is based on the theoretical developments presented in the first two parts of the thesis. The realized SWO is experimentally characterized using different antennas. It is characterized by an input voltage of 30 kV and a resonance frequency of 433 MHz. Radiated electric fields using monopole antennas were in the order of 10 kV/m at a distance of 1.5 m. The prototype is used for testing the validity of the electrodynamic model for the analysis of SWOs connected to frequency dependent antennas. Different monopole antennas connected to the SWO are considered and the radiated fields are measured and compared with theoretical calculations. It is shown that the developed theoretical model is able to reproduce with a good accuracy the behavior of the SWO connected to a frequency dependent antenna.

EPFL2013

Electromagnetic modelling of planar circuits in bounded layered media

Pedro Crespo Valero

Printed circuits in bounded media encompass a wide range of practical structures such as discontinuities in waveguides, planar circuits embedded in shielded multilayered media or even two-dimensional printed periodic structures. The Electromagnetic (EM) modeling of printed circuits in layered bounded media is performed via an Integral Equation (IE) technique. Green's functions (GFs) are specially defined to satisfy both the Boundary Conditions (BCs) imposed by the layered media and by the transverse boundary enclosing the entire structure. Finally, a system of IEs on the equivalent sources can be solved numerically by means of the Method of Moments (MoM). Each of the problems enumerated above has already been solved by other authors using IE-MoM techniques. Nevertheless, our formulation introduces a unified approach applicable to all the aforementioned problems. Due to the symmetry presented by a bounded layered media, the GF problem can be reduced into a two-dimensional transverse boundary problem and a one-dimensional transmission line problem in the normal direction. Both problems can be treated independently. This thesis proposes and fully develops an efficient technique that encompasses different laterally bounded multilayered problems with a seamless transition between them. The method is based on a modal representation of the transverse boundary problem and on the expansion of the equivalent surface currents by zero-curl & constant-charge Basis Functions (BFs). It offers a unified and versatile approach that, on one hand eliminates redundancy in the formulation and on the other hand simplifies each particular problem to the evaluation of constant coefficients or basic line integrals. Analytical solutions can be found for the combination of linear subsectional basis functions in rectangular and circular Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC) boundaries as well as for periodic lattices. This thesis then solves the problem of transmission line model in the longitudinal direction by proposing an efficient algorithm that guarantees numerical stability under a variety of known critical conditions where other already known formulations fail. In addition, it introduces alternate equivalent expressions of this formulation that allow new interpretations of the problem. Due to its practical interest, the method is applied for the EM modeling of multilayered boxed printed circuits. This motivated the implementation of a dedicated software tool for the efficient analysis of these topologies including losses. Extensive numerical experiments have been carried out to assess the validity of the aforementioned theory and some properties of test-structures (losses, mesh, etc).

EPFL2007

EPFL2009

EPFL2013

Electromagnetic modelling of planar circuits in bounded layered media

Pedro Crespo Valero

EPFL2007