Squaring the circle is a problem in geometry first proposed in Greek mathematics. It is the challenge of constructing a square with the area of a circle by using only a finite number of steps with a compass and straightedge. The difficulty of the problem raised the question of whether specified axioms of Euclidean geometry concerning the existence of lines and circles implied the existence of such a square.
In 1882, the task was proven to be impossible, as a consequence of the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem, which proves that pi () is a transcendental number.
That is, is not the root of any polynomial with rational coefficients. It had been known for decades that the construction would be impossible if were transcendental, but that fact was not proven until 1882. Approximate constructions with any given non-perfect accuracy exist, and many such constructions have been found.
Despite the proof that it is impossible, attempts to square the circle have been common in pseudomathematics (i.e. the work of mathematical cranks). The expression "squaring the circle" is sometimes used as a metaphor for trying to do the impossible. The term quadrature of the circle is sometimes used as a synonym for squaring the circle, but it may also refer to approximate or numerical methods for finding the area of a circle.
Methods to calculate the approximate area of a given circle, which can be thought of as a precursor problem to squaring the circle, were known already in many ancient cultures. These methods can be summarized by stating the approximation to pi that they produce. In around 2000 BCE, the Babylonian mathematicians used the approximation , and at approximately the same time the ancient Egyptian mathematicians used . Over 1000 years later, the Old Testament Books of Kings used the simpler approximation . Ancient Indian mathematics, as recorded in the Shatapatha Brahmana and Shulba Sutras, used several different approximations to . Archimedes proved a formula for the area of a circle, according to which .
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Ce cours entend exposer les fondements de la géométrie à un triple titre :
1/ de technique mathématique essentielle au processus de conception du projet,
2/ d'objet privilégié des logiciels de concept
Ce cours a pour but de donner les fondements de mathématiques nécessaires à l'architecte contemporain évoluant dans une école polytechnique.
Ce cours traite des 3 sujets suivants : la perspective, la géométrie descriptive, et une initiation à la géométrie projective.
In Euclidean geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles (90-degree angles, π/2 radian angles, or right angles). It can also be defined as a rectangle with two equal-length adjacent sides. It is the only regular polygon whose internal angle, central angle, and external angle are all equal (90°), and whose diagonals are all equal in length. A square with vertices ABCD would be denoted .
Angle trisection is a classical problem of straightedge and compass construction of ancient Greek mathematics. It concerns construction of an angle equal to one third of a given arbitrary angle, using only two tools: an unmarked straightedge and a compass. In 1837, Pierre Wantzel proved that the problem, as stated, is impossible to solve for arbitrary angles. However, some special angles can be trisected: for example, it is trivial to trisect a right angle (that is, to construct an angle of 30 degrees).
In geometry, the neusis (νεῦσις; ; plural: neuseis) is a geometric construction method that was used in antiquity by Greek mathematicians. The neusis construction consists of fitting a line element of given length (a) in between two given lines (l and m), in such a way that the line element, or its extension, passes through a given point P. That is, one end of the line element has to lie on l, the other end on m, while the line element is "inclined" towards P.
We find an optimal upper bound on the volume of the John ellipsoid of a k-dimensional section of the n-dimensional cube, and an optimal lower bound on the volume of the Lowner ellipsoid of a projection of the n-dimensional cross-polytope onto a k-dimension ...
Within the ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model, the geodesic acoustic modes (GAMs) in tokamaks derived by Winsor et al (1968 Phys. Fluids 11 2448) belong to the continuous spectrum, characterised by unbounded non-square integrable eigenfunctions (delta f ...
2019
We show that the finitely generated simple left orderable groups G(rho) constructed by the first two authors in Hyde and Lodha [Finitely generated infinite simple groups of homeomorphisms of the real line. Invent. Math. (2019), doi:10.1007/s00222-01900880- ...